diff --git a/cpyamf/util.pyx b/cpyamf/util.pyx
index 85460ed0..7c7bc131 100644
--- a/cpyamf/util.pyx
+++ b/cpyamf/util.pyx
@@ -903,6 +903,8 @@ cdef class cBufferedByteStream(object):
     def __nonzero__(self):
         return self.length > 0
 
+    __bool__ = __nonzero__
+
 
 cdef class BufferedByteStream(cBufferedByteStream):
     """
diff --git a/doc/tutorials/examples/actionscript/addressbook/python/controller.py b/doc/tutorials/examples/actionscript/addressbook/python/controller.py
index 1c6d6cd0..db195d2e 100644
--- a/doc/tutorials/examples/actionscript/addressbook/python/controller.py
+++ b/doc/tutorials/examples/actionscript/addressbook/python/controller.py
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@
 """
 
 from datetime import datetime
+from six import iteritems
 
 import pyamf
 
@@ -59,13 +60,13 @@ def insertDefaultData(self):
         user.first_name = 'Bill'
         user.last_name = 'Lumbergh'
         user.created = datetime.utcnow()
-        for label, email in {'personal': 'bill@yahoo.com', 'work': 'bill@initech.com'}.iteritems():
+        for label, email in iteritems({'personal': 'bill@yahoo.com', 'work': 'bill@initech.com'}):
             email_obj = models.Email()
             email_obj.label = label
             email_obj.email = email
             user.emails.append(email_obj)
 
-        for label, number in {'personal': '1-800-555-5555', 'work': '1-555-555-5555'}.iteritems():
+        for label, number in iteritems({'personal': '1-800-555-5555', 'work': '1-555-555-5555'}):
             phone_obj = models.PhoneNumber()
             phone_obj.label = label
             phone_obj.number = number
diff --git a/doc/tutorials/examples/actionscript/guestbook/python/guestbook.py b/doc/tutorials/examples/actionscript/guestbook/python/guestbook.py
index e6c7760c..0904205a 100644
--- a/doc/tutorials/examples/actionscript/guestbook/python/guestbook.py
+++ b/doc/tutorials/examples/actionscript/guestbook/python/guestbook.py
@@ -8,9 +8,9 @@
 """
 
 
-from datetime import datetime
-from urlparse import urlparse
 import re
+from urlparse import urlparse
+from six import string_types
 
 try:
     from genshi.input import HTML
@@ -33,12 +33,12 @@
 # This is MySQL specific, make sure that if you use a different database server
 # this is updated to ensure sql injection attacks don't occur 
 def sql_safe(value):
-    if isinstance(value, basestring):
+    if isinstance(value, string_types):
         return value.replace("'", "\\'")
     elif isinstance(type(value), (int, float)):
         return value
 
-    raise TypeError, 'basestring, int or float expected' 
+    raise TypeError('basestring, int or float expected')
 
 
 def is_valid_url(url):
@@ -93,8 +93,8 @@ def __init__(self, pool):
         self.conn_pool = pool
         LoopingCall(self._keepAlive).start(3600, False)
         
-    def _keepAlive():
-        print 'Running Keep Alive...'
+    def _keepAlive(self):
+        print('Running Keep Alive...')
         self.conn_pool.runOperation('SELECT 1')
 
     def getMessages(self):
@@ -135,35 +135,35 @@ def addMessage(self, request, msg):
         email = msg._amf_object.email
         message = msg._amf_object.message
  
-        if not isinstance(name, basestring):
+        if not isinstance(name, string_types):
             name = str(name)
 
         if len(name) > 50:
-            raise IOError, "Name exceeds maximum length (50 chars max)"
+            raise IOError("Name exceeds maximum length (50 chars max)")
 
-        if not isinstance(url, basestring):
+        if not isinstance(url, string_types):
             url = str(url)
 
         if len(url) > 255:
-            raise IOError, "Website url exceeds maximum length (255 chars max)"
+            raise IOError("Website url exceeds maximum length (255 chars max)")
 
         if len(url) > 0:
             valid_url, reason = is_valid_url(url)
 
             if not valid_url:
-                raise ValueError, "Website url not valid"
+                raise ValueError("Website url not valid")
 
-        if not isinstance(email, basestring):
+        if not isinstance(email, string_types):
             email = str(email)
 
         if not is_valid_email(email):
-            raise ValueError, "Email address is not valid"
+            raise ValueError("Email address is not valid")
 
-        if not isinstance(message, basestring):
+        if not isinstance(message, string_types):
             message = str(message)
 
         if len(message) == 0:
-            raise ValueError, "Message is required"
+            raise ValueError("Message is required")
 
         message = strip_message(message)
         response_deferred = defer.Deferred()
diff --git a/doc/tutorials/examples/gateways/appengine/demo/simplejson/decoder.py b/doc/tutorials/examples/gateways/appengine/demo/simplejson/decoder.py
index 6a73e9af..d449e0eb 100644
--- a/doc/tutorials/examples/gateways/appengine/demo/simplejson/decoder.py
+++ b/doc/tutorials/examples/gateways/appengine/demo/simplejson/decoder.py
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@
 """
 import re
 import sys
+from six import text_type
 
 from simplejson.scanner import Scanner, pattern
 try:
@@ -92,8 +93,8 @@ def scanstring(s, end, encoding=None, _b=BACKSLASH, _m=STRINGCHUNK.match):
         end = chunk.end()
         content, terminator = chunk.groups()
         if content:
-            if not isinstance(content, unicode):
-                content = unicode(content, encoding)
+            if not isinstance(content, text_type):
+                content = content.decode(encoding)
             _append(content)
         if terminator == '"':
             break
diff --git a/doc/tutorials/examples/gateways/appengine/demo/simplejson/encoder.py b/doc/tutorials/examples/gateways/appengine/demo/simplejson/encoder.py
index 1c69b023..675b9b23 100644
--- a/doc/tutorials/examples/gateways/appengine/demo/simplejson/encoder.py
+++ b/doc/tutorials/examples/gateways/appengine/demo/simplejson/encoder.py
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@
 Implementation of JSONEncoder
 """
 import re
+from six import iteritems
 try:
     from simplejson import _speedups
 except ImportError:
@@ -233,7 +234,7 @@ def _iterencode_dict(self, dct, markers=None):
             keys.sort()
             items = [(k, dct[k]) for k in keys]
         else:
-            items = dct.iteritems()
+            items = iteritems(dct)
         _encoding = self.encoding
         _do_decode = (_encoding is not None
             and not (_need_utf8 and _encoding == 'utf-8'))
diff --git a/pyamf/__init__.py b/pyamf/__init__.py
index d8654dbd..738c5b6d 100644
--- a/pyamf/__init__.py
+++ b/pyamf/__init__.py
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@
 
 import types
 import inspect
+from six import iteritems
 
 from pyamf import util, _version
 from pyamf.adapters import register_adapters
@@ -89,6 +90,8 @@ def __repr__(self):
     def __nonzero__(self):
         return False
 
+    __bool__ = __nonzero__
+
 
 #: Represents the C{undefined} value in the Adobe Flash Player client.
 Undefined = UndefinedType()
@@ -607,7 +610,7 @@ def _check_type(type_):
     if type_ in TYPE_MAP:
         raise KeyError('Type %r already exists' % (type_,))
 
-    if isinstance(type_, types.TupleType):
+    if isinstance(type_, tuple):
         for x in type_:
             _check_type(x)
     else:
@@ -626,7 +629,7 @@ def get_type(type_):
     if isinstance(type_, list):
         type_ = tuple(type_)
 
-    for k, v in TYPE_MAP.iteritems():
+    for k, v in iteritems(TYPE_MAP):
         if k == type_:
             return v
 
@@ -717,11 +720,11 @@ def remove_error_class(klass):
         if klass not in ERROR_CLASS_MAP:
             raise ValueError('Code %s is not registered' % (klass,))
     elif isinstance(klass, python.class_types):
-        classes = ERROR_CLASS_MAP.values()
+        classes = list(ERROR_CLASS_MAP.values())
         if klass not in classes:
             raise ValueError('Class %s is not registered' % (klass,))
 
-        klass = ERROR_CLASS_MAP.keys()[classes.index(klass)]
+        klass = list(ERROR_CLASS_MAP.keys())[classes.index(klass)]
     else:
         raise TypeError("Invalid type, expected class or string")
 
@@ -753,7 +756,7 @@ def register_alias_type(klass, *args):
      - At least one type must be supplied
     """
     def check_type_registered(arg):
-        for k, v in ALIAS_TYPES.iteritems():
+        for k, v in iteritems(ALIAS_TYPES):
             for kl in v:
                 if arg is kl:
                     raise RuntimeError('%r is already registered under %r' % (
@@ -781,7 +784,7 @@ def check_type_registered(arg):
 
     ALIAS_TYPES[klass] = args
 
-    for k, v in CLASS_CACHE.copy().iteritems():
+    for k, v in iteritems(CLASS_CACHE.copy()):
         new_alias = util.get_class_alias(v.klass)
 
         if new_alias is klass:
diff --git a/pyamf/adapters/_django_db_models_base.py b/pyamf/adapters/_django_db_models_base.py
index 10ad4f8d..06f2924f 100644
--- a/pyamf/adapters/_django_db_models_base.py
+++ b/pyamf/adapters/_django_db_models_base.py
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@
 from django.db.models.fields import related, files
 
 import datetime
+from six import iteritems
 
 import pyamf
 
@@ -172,7 +173,7 @@ def getEncodableAttributes(self, obj, **kwargs):
         if not attrs:
             attrs = {}
 
-        for name, prop in self.fields.iteritems():
+        for name, prop in iteritems(self.fields):
             if name not in attrs.keys():
                 continue
 
@@ -184,7 +185,7 @@ def getEncodableAttributes(self, obj, **kwargs):
             if key.startswith('_'):
                 del attrs[key]
 
-        for name, relation in self.relations.iteritems():
+        for name, relation in iteritems(self.relations):
             if '_%s_cache' % name in obj.__dict__:
                 attrs[name] = getattr(obj, name)
 
@@ -235,7 +236,7 @@ def getDecodableAttributes(self, obj, attrs, **kwargs):
                     pass
 
         if not getattr(obj, pk_attr):
-            for name, relation in self.relations.iteritems():
+            for name, relation in iteritems(self.relations):
                 if isinstance(relation, related.ManyToManyField):
                     try:
                         if len(attrs[name]) == 0:
diff --git a/pyamf/adapters/_django_utils_translation.py b/pyamf/adapters/_django_utils_translation.py
index 83b0f684..5fbd60a0 100644
--- a/pyamf/adapters/_django_utils_translation.py
+++ b/pyamf/adapters/_django_utils_translation.py
@@ -16,13 +16,13 @@
 def convert_lazy(l, encoder=None):
     try:
         if l.__class__._delegate_text:
-            return unicode(l)
+            return u'l'
     except AttributeError:
         if l.__class__._delegate_unicode:
-            return unicode(l)
+            return u'l'
 
     if l.__class__._delegate_str:
-        return str(l)
+        return b'1'
 
     raise ValueError('Don\'t know how to convert lazy value %s' % (repr(l),))
 
diff --git a/pyamf/adapters/_google_appengine_ext_db.py b/pyamf/adapters/_google_appengine_ext_db.py
index 687db243..57478a49 100644
--- a/pyamf/adapters/_google_appengine_ext_db.py
+++ b/pyamf/adapters/_google_appengine_ext_db.py
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@
 from google.appengine.ext import db
 from google.appengine.ext.db import polymodel
 import datetime
+from six import integer_types, iteritems, string_types
 
 import pyamf
 from pyamf.adapters import util
@@ -112,7 +113,7 @@ def getCustomProperties(self):
         self.properties = {}
         reverse_props = []
 
-        for name, prop in self.klass.properties().iteritems():
+        for name, prop in iteritems(self.klass.properties()):
             self.properties[name] = prop
 
             props.append(name)
@@ -127,7 +128,7 @@ def getCustomProperties(self):
         # check if the property is a defined as a collection_name. These types
         # of properties are read-only and the datastore freaks out if you
         # attempt to meddle with it. We delete the attribute entirely ..
-        for name, value in self.klass.__dict__.iteritems():
+        for name, value in iteritems(self.klass.__dict__):
             if isinstance(value, db._ReverseReferenceProperty):
                 reverse_props.append(name)
 
@@ -149,7 +150,7 @@ def getEncodableAttributes(self, obj, codec=None):
         gae_objects = getGAEObjects(codec.context) if codec else None
 
         if self.reference_properties and gae_objects:
-            for name, prop in self.reference_properties.iteritems():
+            for name, prop in iteritems(self.reference_properties):
                 klass = prop.reference_class
                 key = prop.get_value_for_datastore(obj)
 
@@ -210,11 +211,11 @@ def getDecodableAttributes(self, obj, attrs, codec=None):
                 v = attrs[k]
 
                 if isinstance(prop, db.FloatProperty) and \
-                        isinstance(v, (int, long)):
+                        isinstance(v, integer_types):
                     attrs[k] = float(v)
                 elif isinstance(prop, db.IntegerProperty) and \
                         isinstance(v, float):
-                    x = long(v)
+                    x = int(v)
 
                     # only convert the type if there is no mantissa - otherwise
                     # let the chips fall where they may
@@ -280,7 +281,7 @@ def loadInstanceFromDatastore(klass, key, codec=None):
             'expected db.Model/db.Expando class, got %s' % (klass,)
         )
 
-    if not isinstance(key, basestring):
+    if not isinstance(key, string_types):
         raise TypeError('string expected for key, got %s', (repr(key),))
 
     key = str(key)
diff --git a/pyamf/adapters/util.py b/pyamf/adapters/util.py
index 16f03abd..256ff2b9 100644
--- a/pyamf/adapters/util.py
+++ b/pyamf/adapters/util.py
@@ -7,10 +7,7 @@
 @since: 0.4
 """
 
-import __builtin__
-
-if not hasattr(__builtin__, 'set'):
-    from sets import Set as set
+from six.moves import builtins
 
 
 def to_list(obj, encoder):
diff --git a/pyamf/alias.py b/pyamf/alias.py
index 36a18b33..fff29f76 100644
--- a/pyamf/alias.py
+++ b/pyamf/alias.py
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@
 """
 
 import inspect
+from six import iteritems, string_types
 
 import pyamf
 from pyamf import python, util
@@ -123,7 +124,7 @@ def compile(self):
             self.decodable_properties.update(self.klass.__slots__)
             self.encodable_properties.update(self.klass.__slots__)
 
-        for k, v in self.klass.__dict__.iteritems():
+        for k, v in iteritems(self.klass.__dict__):
             if not isinstance(v, property):
                 continue
 
@@ -313,7 +314,7 @@ def __repr__(self):
         )
 
     def __eq__(self, other):
-        if isinstance(other, basestring):
+        if isinstance(other, string_types):
             return self.alias == other
         elif isinstance(other, self.__class__):
             return self.klass == other.klass
@@ -421,14 +422,14 @@ def getEncodableAttributes(self, obj, codec=None):
         if self.proxy_attrs is not None and attrs and codec:
             context = codec.context
 
-            for k, v in attrs.copy().iteritems():
+            for k, v in iteritems(attrs.copy()):
                 if k in self.proxy_attrs:
                     attrs[k] = context.getProxyForObject(v)
 
         if self.synonym_attrs:
             missing = object()
 
-            for k, v in self.synonym_attrs.iteritems():
+            for k, v in iteritems(self.synonym_attrs):
                 value = attrs.pop(k, missing)
 
                 if value is missing:
@@ -510,7 +511,7 @@ def getDecodableAttributes(self, obj, attrs, codec=None):
         if self.synonym_attrs:
             missing = object()
 
-            for k, v in self.synonym_attrs.iteritems():
+            for k, v in iteritems(self.synonym_attrs):
                 value = attrs.pop(v, missing)
 
                 if value is missing:
diff --git a/pyamf/amf0.py b/pyamf/amf0.py
index 46707d40..f6dbef4b 100644
--- a/pyamf/amf0.py
+++ b/pyamf/amf0.py
@@ -17,6 +17,8 @@
 """
 
 import datetime
+from six import iteritems, integer_types, text_type
+from six.moves import xrange
 
 import pyamf
 from pyamf import util, codec, xml, python
@@ -24,70 +26,70 @@
 
 #: Represented as 9 bytes: 1 byte for C{0x00} and 8 bytes a double
 #: representing the value of the number.
-TYPE_NUMBER = '\x00'
+TYPE_NUMBER = b'\x00'
 #: Represented as 2 bytes: 1 byte for C{0x01} and a second, C{0x00}
 #: for C{False}, C{0x01} for C{True}.
-TYPE_BOOL = '\x01'
+TYPE_BOOL = b'\x01'
 #: Represented as 3 bytes + len(String): 1 byte C{0x02}, then a UTF8 string,
 #: including the top two bytes representing string length as a C{int}.
-TYPE_STRING = '\x02'
+TYPE_STRING = b'\x02'
 #: Represented as 1 byte, C{0x03}, then pairs of UTF8 string, the key, and
 #: an AMF element, ended by three bytes, C{0x00} C{0x00} C{0x09}.
-TYPE_OBJECT = '\x03'
+TYPE_OBJECT = b'\x03'
 #: MovieClip does not seem to be supported by Remoting.
 #: It may be used by other AMF clients such as SharedObjects.
-TYPE_MOVIECLIP = '\x04'
+TYPE_MOVIECLIP = b'\x04'
 #: 1 single byte, C{0x05} indicates null.
-TYPE_NULL = '\x05'
+TYPE_NULL = b'\x05'
 #: 1 single byte, C{0x06} indicates null.
-TYPE_UNDEFINED = '\x06'
+TYPE_UNDEFINED = b'\x06'
 #: When an ActionScript object refers to itself, such C{this.self = this},
 #: or when objects are repeated within the same scope (for example, as the
 #: two parameters of the same function called), a code of C{0x07} and an
 #: C{int}, the reference number, are written.
-TYPE_REFERENCE = '\x07'
+TYPE_REFERENCE = b'\x07'
 #: A MixedArray is indicated by code C{0x08}, then a Long representing the
 #: highest numeric index in the array, or 0 if there are none or they are
 #: all negative. After that follow the elements in key : value pairs.
-TYPE_MIXEDARRAY = '\x08'
+TYPE_MIXEDARRAY = b'\x08'
 #: @see: L{TYPE_OBJECT}
-TYPE_OBJECTTERM = '\x09'
+TYPE_OBJECTTERM = b'\x09'
 #: An array is indicated by C{0x0A}, then a Long for array length, then the
 #: array elements themselves. Arrays are always sparse; values for
 #: inexistant keys are set to null (C{0x06}) to maintain sparsity.
-TYPE_ARRAY = '\x0A'
+TYPE_ARRAY = b'\x0A'
 #: Date is represented as C{0x0B}, then a double, then an C{int}. The double
 #: represents the number of milliseconds since 01/01/1970. The C{int}
 #: represents the timezone offset in minutes between GMT. Note for the latter
 #: than values greater than 720 (12 hours) are represented as M{2^16} - the
 #: value. Thus GMT+1 is 60 while GMT-5 is 65236.
-TYPE_DATE = '\x0B'
+TYPE_DATE = b'\x0B'
 #: LongString is reserved for strings larger then M{2^16} characters long. It
 #: is represented as C{0x0C} then a LongUTF.
-TYPE_LONGSTRING = '\x0C'
+TYPE_LONGSTRING = b'\x0C'
 #: Trying to send values which don't make sense, such as prototypes, functions,
 #: built-in objects, etc. will be indicated by a single C{00x0D} byte.
-TYPE_UNSUPPORTED = '\x0D'
+TYPE_UNSUPPORTED = b'\x0D'
 #: Remoting Server -> Client only.
 #: @see: L{RecordSet}
 #: @see: U{RecordSet structure on OSFlash
 #: <http://osflash.org/documentation/amf/recordset>}
-TYPE_RECORDSET = '\x0E'
+TYPE_RECORDSET = b'\x0E'
 #: The XML element is indicated by C{0x0F} and followed by a LongUTF containing
 #: the string representation of the XML object. The receiving gateway may which
 #: to wrap this string inside a language-specific standard XML object, or
 #: simply pass as a string.
-TYPE_XML = '\x0F'
+TYPE_XML = b'\x0F'
 #: A typed object is indicated by C{0x10}, then a UTF string indicating class
 #: name, and then the same structure as a normal C{0x03} Object. The receiving
 #: gateway may use a mapping scheme, or send back as a vanilla object or
 #: associative array.
-TYPE_TYPEDOBJECT = '\x10'
+TYPE_TYPEDOBJECT = b'\x10'
 #: An AMF message sent from an AVM+ client such as the Flash Player 9 may break
 #: out into L{AMF3<pyamf.amf3>} mode. In this case the next byte will be the
 #: AMF3 type code and the data will be in AMF3 format until the decoded object
 #: reaches it's logical conclusion (for example, an object has no more keys).
-TYPE_AMF3 = '\x11'
+TYPE_AMF3 = b'\x11'
 
 
 class Context(codec.Context):
@@ -243,7 +245,7 @@ def readMixedArray(self):
 
         attrs = self.readObjectAttributes(obj)
 
-        for key, value in attrs.iteritems():
+        for key, value in iteritems(attrs):
             try:
                 key = int(key)
             except ValueError:
@@ -302,11 +304,11 @@ def readAMF3(self):
     def readObjectAttributes(self, obj):
         obj_attrs = {}
 
-        key = self.readString(True)
+        key = self.readString()
 
         while self.stream.peek() != TYPE_OBJECTTERM:
             obj_attrs[key] = self.readElement()
-            key = self.readString(True)
+            key = self.readString()
 
         # discard the end marker (TYPE_OBJECTTERM)
         self.stream.read(1)
@@ -481,7 +483,7 @@ def serialiseString(self, s):
         """
         Similar to L{writeString} but does not encode a type byte.
         """
-        if type(s) is unicode:
+        if isinstance(s, text_type):
             s = self.context.getBytesForString(s)
 
         l = len(s)
@@ -541,12 +543,20 @@ def _writeDict(self, o):
 
         @param o: The C{dict} data to be encoded to the AMF0 data stream.
         """
-        for key, val in o.iteritems():
-            if type(key) in python.int_types:
+        e = pyamf.EncodeError('Unable to encode %r (type %r)' % (o, type(o)))
+        try:
+            keys = sorted(o)
+        except TypeError:
+            raise e
+        for key in keys:
+            value = o[key]
+            if isinstance(key, python.int_types):
                 key = str(key)
+            elif not isinstance(key, python.str_types):
+                raise e
 
             self.serialiseString(key)
-            self.writeElement(val)
+            self.writeElement(value)
 
     def writeMixedArray(self, o):
         """
@@ -566,7 +576,7 @@ def writeMixedArray(self, o):
             # list comprehensions to save the day
             max_index = max([
                 y[0] for y in o.items()
-                if isinstance(y[0], (int, long))
+                if isinstance(y[0], integer_types)
             ])
 
             if max_index < 0:
@@ -580,7 +590,7 @@ def writeMixedArray(self, o):
         self._writeEndObject()
 
     def _writeEndObject(self):
-        self.stream.write('\x00\x00' + TYPE_OBJECTTERM)
+        self.stream.write(b'\x00\x00' + TYPE_OBJECTTERM)
 
     def writeObject(self, o):
         """
@@ -610,7 +620,7 @@ def writeObject(self, o):
         attrs = alias.getEncodableAttributes(o, codec=self)
 
         if alias.static_attrs and attrs:
-            for key in alias.static_attrs:
+            for key in sorted(alias.static_attrs):
                 value = attrs.pop(key)
 
                 self.serialiseString(key)
@@ -655,7 +665,7 @@ def writeXML(self, e):
 
         data = xml.tostring(e)
 
-        if isinstance(data, unicode):
+        if isinstance(data, text_type):
             data = data.encode('utf-8')
 
         self.stream.write_ulong(len(data))
diff --git a/pyamf/amf3.py b/pyamf/amf3.py
index 88b941c7..c5761ed5 100644
--- a/pyamf/amf3.py
+++ b/pyamf/amf3.py
@@ -23,6 +23,8 @@
 
 import datetime
 import zlib
+from six import binary_type, iteritems, text_type
+from six.moves import xrange
 
 import pyamf
 from pyamf import codec, util, xml, python
@@ -44,37 +46,37 @@
 
 #: The undefined type is represented by the undefined type marker. No further
 #: information is encoded for this value.
-TYPE_UNDEFINED = '\x00'
+TYPE_UNDEFINED = b'\x00'
 #: The null type is represented by the null type marker. No further
 #: information is encoded for this value.
-TYPE_NULL = '\x01'
+TYPE_NULL = b'\x01'
 #: The false type is represented by the false type marker and is used to
 #: encode a Boolean value of C{false}. No further information is encoded for
 #: this value.
-TYPE_BOOL_FALSE = '\x02'
+TYPE_BOOL_FALSE = b'\x02'
 #: The true type is represented by the true type marker and is used to encode
 #: a Boolean value of C{true}. No further information is encoded for this
 #: value.
-TYPE_BOOL_TRUE = '\x03'
+TYPE_BOOL_TRUE = b'\x03'
 #: In AMF 3 integers are serialized using a variable length signed 29-bit
 #: integer.
 #: @see: U{Parsing Integers on OSFlash (external)
 #: <http://osflash.org/documentation/amf3/parsing_integers>}
-TYPE_INTEGER = '\x04'
+TYPE_INTEGER = b'\x04'
 #: This type is used to encode an ActionScript Number or an ActionScript
 #: C{int} of value greater than or equal to 2^28 or an ActionScript uint of
 #: value greater than or equal to 2^29. The encoded value is is always an 8
 #: byte IEEE-754 double precision floating point value in network byte order
 #: (sign bit in low memory). The AMF 3 number type is encoded in the same
 #: manner as the AMF 0 L{Number<pyamf.amf0.TYPE_NUMBER>} type.
-TYPE_NUMBER = '\x05'
+TYPE_NUMBER = b'\x05'
 #: ActionScript String values are represented using a single string type in
 #: AMF 3 - the concept of string and long string types from AMF 0 is not used.
 #: Strings can be sent as a reference to a previously occurring String by
 #: using an index to the implicit string reference table. Strings are encoding
 #: using UTF-8 - however the header may either describe a string literal or a
 #: string reference.
-TYPE_STRING = '\x06'
+TYPE_STRING = b'\x06'
 #: ActionScript 3.0 introduced a new XML type however the legacy C{XMLDocument}
 #: type from ActionScript 1.0 and 2.0.is retained in the language as
 #: C{flash.xml.XMLDocument}. Similar to AMF 0, the structure of an
@@ -86,29 +88,29 @@
 #: @see: U{OSFlash documentation (external)
 #: <http://osflash.org/documentation/amf3
 #:     #x07_-_xml_legacy_flash.xml.xmldocument_class>}
-TYPE_XML = '\x07'
+TYPE_XML = b'\x07'
 #: In AMF 3 an ActionScript Date is serialized as the number of
 #: milliseconds elapsed since the epoch of midnight, 1st Jan 1970 in the
 #: UTC time zone. Local time zone information is not sent.
-TYPE_DATE = '\x08'
+TYPE_DATE = b'\x08'
 #: ActionScript Arrays are described based on the nature of their indices,
 #: i.e. their type and how they are positioned in the Array.
-TYPE_ARRAY = '\x09'
+TYPE_ARRAY = b'\x09'
 #: A single AMF 3 type handles ActionScript Objects and custom user classes.
-TYPE_OBJECT = '\x0A'
+TYPE_OBJECT = b'\x0A'
 #: ActionScript 3.0 introduces a new top-level XML class that supports
 #: U{E4X<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E4X>} syntax.
 #: For serialization purposes the XML type needs to be flattened into a
 #: string representation. As with other strings in AMF, the content is
 #: encoded using UTF-8.
-TYPE_XMLSTRING = '\x0B'
+TYPE_XMLSTRING = b'\x0B'
 #: ActionScript 3.0 introduces the L{ByteArray} type to hold an Array
 #: of bytes. AMF 3 serializes this type using a variable length encoding
 #: 29-bit integer for the byte-length prefix followed by the raw bytes
 #: of the L{ByteArray}.
 #: @see: U{Parsing ByteArrays on OSFlash (external)
 #: <http://osflash.org/documentation/amf3/parsing_byte_arrays>}
-TYPE_BYTEARRAY = '\x0C'
+TYPE_BYTEARRAY = b'\x0C'
 
 #: Reference bit.
 REFERENCE_BIT = 0x01
@@ -249,7 +251,7 @@ def writeMultiByte(self, value, charset):
         @see: U{Supported character sets on Adobe Help (external)
             <http://help.adobe.com/en_US/FlashPlatform/reference/actionscript/3/charset-codes.html>}
         """
-        if type(value) is unicode:
+        if isinstance(value, text_type):
             value = value.encode(charset)
 
         self.stream.write(value)
@@ -318,10 +320,10 @@ def writeUTFBytes(self, value):
         """
         val = None
 
-        if isinstance(value, unicode):
+        if isinstance(value, text_type):
             val = value
         else:
-            val = unicode(value, 'utf8')
+            val = value.decode('utf8')
 
         self.stream.write_utf8_string(val)
 
@@ -356,9 +358,9 @@ def readBoolean(self):
         """
         byte = self.stream.read(1)
 
-        if byte == '\x00':
+        if byte == b'\x00':
             return False
-        elif byte == '\x01':
+        elif byte == b'\x01':
             return True
         else:
             raise ValueError("Error reading boolean")
@@ -417,7 +419,7 @@ def readMultiByte(self, length, charset):
         # FIXME nick: how to work out the code point byte size (on the fly)?
         bytes = self.stream.read(length)
 
-        return unicode(bytes, charset)
+        return bytes.decode(charset)
 
     def readObject(self):
         """
@@ -508,7 +510,7 @@ class ByteArray(util.BufferedByteStream, DataInput, DataOutput):
     <http://help.adobe.com/en_US/FlashPlatform/reference/actionscript/3/flash/utils/ByteArray.html>}
     """
 
-    _zlib_header = '\x78\x9c'
+    _zlib_header = b'\x78\x9c'
 
     class __amf__:
         amf3 = True
@@ -532,13 +534,13 @@ def writeObject(self, obj):
 
         return super(ByteArray, self).writeObject(obj)
 
-    def __cmp__(self, other):
+    def __eq__(self, other):
         if isinstance(other, ByteArray):
-            return cmp(self.getvalue(), other.getvalue())
+            return self.getvalue() == other.getvalue()
 
-        return cmp(self.getvalue(), other)
+        return self.getvalue() == other
 
-    def __str__(self):
+    def encode(self):
         buf = self.getvalue()
 
         if not self.compressed:
@@ -546,7 +548,7 @@ def __str__(self):
 
         buf = zlib.compress(buf)
         # FIXME nick: hacked
-        return buf[0] + '\xda' + buf[2:]
+        return buf[0] + b'\xda' + buf[2:]
 
     def compress(self):
         """
@@ -664,7 +666,7 @@ def addString(self, s):
 
         @raise TypeError: The parameter C{s} is not of C{basestring} type.
         """
-        if not isinstance(s, basestring):
+        if not isinstance(s, binary_type):
             raise TypeError
 
         if len(s) == 0:
@@ -869,7 +871,7 @@ def readBytes(self):
             return self.context.getString(length)
 
         if length == 0:
-            return ''
+            return b''
 
         result = self.stream.read(length)
         self.context.addString(result)
@@ -931,7 +933,7 @@ def readArray(self):
 
         size >>= 1
 
-        key = self.readBytes()
+        key = self.readString()
 
         if key == '':
             # integer indexes only -> python list
@@ -948,7 +950,7 @@ def readArray(self):
 
         while key:
             result[key] = self.readElement()
-            key = self.readBytes()
+            key = self.readString()
 
         for i in xrange(size):
             el = self.readElement()
@@ -968,7 +970,7 @@ def _getClassDefinition(self, ref):
 
             return class_def
 
-        name = self.readBytes()
+        name = self.readString()
         alias = None
 
         if name == '':
@@ -990,7 +992,7 @@ def _getClassDefinition(self, ref):
 
         if class_def.attr_len > 0:
             for i in xrange(class_def.attr_len):
-                key = self.readBytes()
+                key = self.readString()
 
                 class_def.static_properties.append(key)
 
@@ -1003,11 +1005,11 @@ def _readStatic(self, class_def, obj):
             obj[attr] = self.readElement()
 
     def _readDynamic(self, class_def, obj):
-        attr = self.readBytes()
+        attr = self.readString()
 
         while attr:
             obj[attr] = self.readElement()
-            attr = self.readBytes()
+            attr = self.readString()
 
     def readObject(self):
         """
@@ -1240,7 +1242,7 @@ def serialiseString(self, s):
         @type   s: C{str}
         @param  s: The string data to be encoded to the AMF3 data stream.
         """
-        if type(s) is unicode:
+        if isinstance(s, text_type):
             s = self.context.getBytesForString(s)
 
         self.serialiseBytes(s)
@@ -1324,7 +1326,7 @@ def writeList(self, n, is_proxy=False):
         self.context.addObject(n)
 
         self._writeInteger((len(n) << 1) | REFERENCE_BIT)
-        self.stream.write('\x01')
+        self.stream.write(b'\x01')
 
         [self.writeElement(x) for x in n]
 
@@ -1465,7 +1467,7 @@ def writeObject(self, obj, is_proxy=False):
                 definition.reference << 2 | REFERENCE_BIT)
 
             if alias.anonymous:
-                self.stream.write('\x01')
+                self.stream.write(b'\x01')
             else:
                 self.serialiseString(alias.alias)
 
@@ -1483,9 +1485,9 @@ def writeObject(self, obj, is_proxy=False):
 
         if alias.static_attrs:
             if not class_ref:
-                [self.serialiseString(attr) for attr in alias.static_attrs]
+                [self.serialiseString(attr) for attr in sorted(alias.static_attrs)]
 
-            for attr in alias.static_attrs:
+            for attr in sorted(alias.static_attrs):
                 value = attrs.pop(attr)
 
                 self.writeElement(value)
@@ -1495,14 +1497,22 @@ def writeObject(self, obj, is_proxy=False):
 
         if definition.encoding == ObjectEncoding.DYNAMIC:
             if attrs:
-                for attr, value in attrs.iteritems():
-                    if type(attr) in python.int_types:
-                        attr = str(attr)
-
-                    self.serialiseString(attr)
+                e = pyamf.EncodeError('Unable to encode %r (type %r)' % (obj, type(obj)))
+                try:
+                    keys = sorted(attrs)
+                except TypeError:
+                    raise e
+                for key in keys:
+                    value = attrs[key]
+                    if isinstance(key, python.int_types):
+                        key = str(key)
+                    elif not isinstance(key, python.str_types):
+                        raise e
+
+                    self.serialiseString(key)
                     self.writeElement(value)
 
-            self.stream.write('\x01')
+            self.stream.write(b'\x01')
 
     def writeByteArray(self, n):
         """
@@ -1522,7 +1532,7 @@ def writeByteArray(self, n):
 
         self.context.addObject(n)
 
-        buf = str(n)
+        buf = n.encode()
         l = len(buf)
         self._writeInteger(l << 1 | REFERENCE_BIT)
         self.stream.write(buf)
@@ -1544,7 +1554,7 @@ def writeXML(self, n):
 
         self.context.addObject(n)
 
-        self.serialiseString(xml.tostring(n).encode('utf-8'))
+        self.serialiseString(xml.tostring(n))
 
 
 def encode_int(n):
@@ -1570,31 +1580,31 @@ def encode_int(n):
     if n < 0:
         n += 0x20000000
 
-    bytes = ''
+    encoded = bytearray()
     real_value = None
 
     if n > 0x1fffff:
         real_value = n
         n >>= 1
-        bytes += chr(0x80 | ((n >> 21) & 0xff))
+        encoded.append(0x80 | ((n >> 21) & 0xff))
 
     if n > 0x3fff:
-        bytes += chr(0x80 | ((n >> 14) & 0xff))
+        encoded.append(0x80 | ((n >> 14) & 0xff))
 
     if n > 0x7f:
-        bytes += chr(0x80 | ((n >> 7) & 0xff))
+        encoded.append(0x80 | ((n >> 7) & 0xff))
 
     if real_value is not None:
         n = real_value
 
     if n > 0x1fffff:
-        bytes += chr(n & 0xff)
+        encoded.append(n & 0xff)
     else:
-        bytes += chr(n & 0x7f)
-
-    ENCODED_INT_CACHE[n] = bytes
+        encoded.append(n & 0x7f)
 
-    return bytes
+    encoded = bytes(encoded)
+    ENCODED_INT_CACHE[n] = encoded
+    return encoded
 
 
 def decode_int(stream, signed=False):
diff --git a/pyamf/codec.py b/pyamf/codec.py
index e51904ae..e91164e3 100644
--- a/pyamf/codec.py
+++ b/pyamf/codec.py
@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@
 
 import types
 import datetime
+from six import binary_type, text_type, iteritems
 
 import pyamf
 from pyamf import util, python, xml
@@ -18,13 +19,6 @@
     'Encoder'
 ]
 
-try:
-    unicode
-except NameError:
-    # py3k support
-    unicode = str
-    str = bytes
-
 
 class IndexedCollection(object):
     """
@@ -281,7 +275,7 @@ class _Codec(object):
 
     def __init__(self, stream=None, context=None, strict=False,
                  timezone_offset=None):
-        if isinstance(stream, basestring) or stream is None:
+        if isinstance(stream, binary_type) or stream is None:
             stream = util.BufferedByteStream(stream)
 
         self.stream = stream
@@ -334,6 +328,8 @@ def next(self):
             # all data was successfully decoded from the stream
             raise StopIteration
 
+    __next__ = next
+
     def readElement(self):
         """
         Reads an AMF3 element from the data stream.
@@ -444,11 +440,9 @@ def writeGenerator(self, gen):
         """
         Iterates over a generator object and encodes all that is returned.
         """
-        n = getattr(gen, 'next')
-
         while True:
             try:
-                self.writeElement(n())
+                self.writeElement(next(gen))
             except StopIteration:
                 break
 
@@ -463,9 +457,9 @@ def getTypeFunc(self, data):
         t = type(data)
 
         # try types that we know will work
-        if t is str or issubclass(t, str):
+        if t is binary_type or issubclass(t, binary_type):
             return self.writeBytes
-        if t is unicode or issubclass(t, unicode):
+        if t is text_type or issubclass(t, text_type):
             return self.writeString
         elif t is bool:
             return self.writeBoolean
@@ -485,7 +479,7 @@ def getTypeFunc(self, data):
             return self.writeXML
 
         # check for any overridden types
-        for type_, func in pyamf.TYPE_MAP.iteritems():
+        for type_, func in iteritems(pyamf.TYPE_MAP):
             try:
                 if isinstance(data, type_):
                     return _CustomTypeFunc(self, func)
@@ -550,5 +544,7 @@ def next(self):
 
         return self.stream.read(end_pos - start_pos)
 
+    __next__ = next
+
     def __iter__(self):
         return self
diff --git a/pyamf/flex/messaging.py b/pyamf/flex/messaging.py
index 67b3093f..e634e974 100644
--- a/pyamf/flex/messaging.py
+++ b/pyamf/flex/messaging.py
@@ -570,7 +570,7 @@ def decode_uuid(obj):
 
     @since: 0.5
     """
-    return uuid.UUID(bytes=str(obj))
+    return uuid.UUID(bytes=obj.encode())
 
 
 pyamf.register_package(globals(), package=NAMESPACE)
diff --git a/pyamf/remoting/__init__.py b/pyamf/remoting/__init__.py
index 53c12be4..e8faf0af 100644
--- a/pyamf/remoting/__init__.py
+++ b/pyamf/remoting/__init__.py
@@ -26,6 +26,9 @@
 @since: 0.1
 """
 
+from six import iteritems, text_type
+from six.moves import xrange
+
 import pyamf
 from pyamf import util
 
@@ -172,6 +175,8 @@ def __getitem__(self, name):
     def __nonzero__(self):
         return len(self.bodies) != 0 or len(self.headers) != 0
 
+    __bool__ = __nonzero__
+
     def __iter__(self):
         for body in self.bodies:
             yield body[0], body[1]
@@ -335,7 +340,7 @@ def raiseException(self):
         Raises an exception based on the fault object. There is no traceback
         available.
         """
-        raise get_exception_from_fault(self), self.description, None
+        raise get_exception_from_fault(self)(self.description)
 
 
 class ErrorFault(BaseFault):
@@ -429,14 +434,14 @@ def _read_args():
         # does not keep the array of args in the object references lookup
         type_byte = stream.peek(1)
 
-        if type_byte == '\x11':
+        if type_byte == b'\x11':
             if not decoder.use_amf3:
                 raise pyamf.DecodeError(
                     "Unexpected AMF3 type with incorrect message type")
 
             return decoder.readElement()
 
-        if type_byte != '\x0a':
+        if type_byte != b'\x0a':
             raise pyamf.DecodeError("Array type required for request body")
 
         stream.read(1)
@@ -450,7 +455,7 @@ def _read_args():
     status = STATUS_OK
     is_request = True
 
-    for code, s in STATUS_CODES.iteritems():
+    for code, s in iteritems(STATUS_CODES):
         if not target.endswith(s):
             continue
 
@@ -502,7 +507,7 @@ def _encode_body(message):
 
             return
 
-        stream.write('\x0a')
+        stream.write(b'\x0a')
         stream.write_ulong(len(message.body))
         for x in message.body:
             encoder.writeElement(x)
@@ -513,13 +518,11 @@ def _encode_body(message):
     target = None
 
     if isinstance(message, Request):
-        target = unicode(message.target)
+        target = text_type(message.target)
     else:
         target = u"%s%s" % (name, _get_status(message.status))
 
-    target = target.encode('utf8')
-
-    stream.write_ushort(len(target))
+    stream.write_ushort(len(target.encode('utf8')))
     stream.write_utf8_string(target)
 
     response = 'null'
@@ -578,8 +581,8 @@ def get_fault(data):
 
     e = {}
 
-    for x, y in data.iteritems():
-        if isinstance(x, unicode):
+    for x, y in iteritems(data):
+        if isinstance(x, text_type):
             e[str(x)] = y
         else:
             e[x] = y
@@ -694,7 +697,7 @@ def encode(msg, strict=False, logger=None, timezone_offset=None):
     stream.write_ushort(msg.amfVersion)
     stream.write_ushort(len(msg.headers))
 
-    for name, header in msg.headers.iteritems():
+    for name, header in iteritems(msg.headers):
         _write_header(
             name,
             header,
@@ -706,7 +709,7 @@ def encode(msg, strict=False, logger=None, timezone_offset=None):
 
     stream.write_short(len(msg))
 
-    for name, message in msg.iteritems():
+    for name, message in iteritems(msg):
         encoder.context.clear()
 
         _write_body(name, message, stream, encoder, strict)
diff --git a/pyamf/remoting/amf0.py b/pyamf/remoting/amf0.py
index 151f19fb..6fa33461 100644
--- a/pyamf/remoting/amf0.py
+++ b/pyamf/remoting/amf0.py
@@ -9,6 +9,7 @@
 
 import traceback
 import sys
+from six import text_type
 
 from pyamf import remoting
 from pyamf.remoting import gateway
@@ -156,6 +157,6 @@ def build_fault(cls, e, tb, include_traceback=False):
 
     return remoting.ErrorFault(
         code=code,
-        description=unicode(e),
+        description=text_type(e),
         details=details
     )
diff --git a/pyamf/remoting/amf3.py b/pyamf/remoting/amf3.py
index 08a38419..32dd4e9e 100644
--- a/pyamf/remoting/amf3.py
+++ b/pyamf/remoting/amf3.py
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@
 import time
 import uuid
 import sys
+from six import text_type
 
 import pyamf.python
 from pyamf import remoting
@@ -77,13 +78,13 @@ def generate_error(request, cls, e, tb, include_traceback=False):
     faultString = None
 
     if hasattr(e, 'message'):
-        faultString = unicode(e.message)
+        faultString = text_type(e.message)
     elif hasattr(e, 'args') and e.args:
         if isinstance(e.args[0], pyamf.python.str_types):
-            faultString = unicode(e.args[0])
+            faultString = text_type(e.args[0])
 
     if details:
-        faultDetail = unicode(details)
+        faultDetail = text_type(details)
 
     return messaging.ErrorMessage(
         messageId=generate_random_id(),
diff --git a/pyamf/remoting/client/__init__.py b/pyamf/remoting/client/__init__.py
index 283b955d..c7d3f177 100644
--- a/pyamf/remoting/client/__init__.py
+++ b/pyamf/remoting/client/__init__.py
@@ -7,8 +7,10 @@
 @since: 0.1
 """
 
-import urllib2
-import urlparse
+from six import iteritems, string_types
+from six.moves.urllib.error import URLError
+from six.moves.urllib.parse import urlparse
+from six.moves.urllib.request import Request, urlopen
 
 import pyamf
 from pyamf import remoting
@@ -18,10 +20,7 @@
 except ImportError:
     GzipFile = False
 
-try:
-    from cStringIO import StringIO
-except ImportError:
-    from StringIO import StringIO
+from six import BytesIO
 
 
 #: Default user agent is `PyAMF/x.x(.x)`.
@@ -224,7 +223,7 @@ def __init__(self, url, amf_version=pyamf.AMF0, **kwargs):
         self.referer = kwargs.pop('referer', None)
         self.strict = kwargs.pop('strict', False)
         self.logger = kwargs.pop('logger', None)
-        self.opener = kwargs.pop('opener', urllib2.urlopen)
+        self.opener = kwargs.pop('opener', urlopen)
 
         if kwargs:
             raise TypeError('Unexpected keyword arguments %r' % (kwargs,))
@@ -232,7 +231,7 @@ def __init__(self, url, amf_version=pyamf.AMF0, **kwargs):
         self._setUrl(url)
 
     def _setUrl(self, url):
-        self.url = urlparse.urlparse(url)
+        self.url = urlparse(url)
         self._root_url = url
 
         if not self.url[0] in ('http', 'https'):
@@ -285,7 +284,7 @@ def getService(self, name, auto_execute=True):
         @rtype: L{ServiceProxy}
         @raise TypeError: Unexpected type for string C{name}.
         """
-        if not isinstance(name, basestring):
+        if not isinstance(name, string_types):
             raise TypeError('string type required')
 
         return ServiceProxy(self, name, auto_execute)
@@ -398,7 +397,7 @@ def execute_single(self, request):
             strict=self.strict
         )
 
-        http_request = urllib2.Request(
+        http_request = Request(
             self._root_url, body.getvalue(),
             self._get_execute_headers()
         )
@@ -425,7 +424,7 @@ def execute(self):
             strict=self.strict
         )
 
-        http_request = urllib2.Request(
+        http_request = Request(
             self._root_url, body.getvalue(),
             self._get_execute_headers()
         )
@@ -446,7 +445,7 @@ def _getResponse(self, http_request):
 
         try:
             fbh = self.opener(http_request)
-        except urllib2.URLError, e:
+        except URLError as e:
             if self.logger:
                 self.logger.exception('Failed request for %s', self._root_url)
 
@@ -484,7 +483,7 @@ def _getResponse(self, http_request):
                     'Decompression of Content-Encoding: %s not available.' % (
                         content_encoding,))
 
-            compressedstream = StringIO(bytes)
+            compressedstream = BytesIO(bytes)
             gzipper = GzipFile(fileobj=compressedstream)
             bytes = gzipper.read()
             gzipper.close()
@@ -509,7 +508,7 @@ def _getResponse(self, http_request):
         if remoting.REQUEST_PERSISTENT_HEADER in response.headers:
             data = response.headers[remoting.REQUEST_PERSISTENT_HEADER]
 
-            for k, v in data.iteritems():
+            for k, v in iteritems(data):
                 self.headers[k] = v
 
         return response
@@ -521,8 +520,8 @@ def setCredentials(self, username, password):
         self.addHeader(
             'Credentials',
             dict(
-                userid=username.decode('utf-8'),
-                password=password.decode('utf-8')
+                userid=username,
+                password=password
             ),
             True
         )
diff --git a/pyamf/remoting/gateway/__init__.py b/pyamf/remoting/gateway/__init__.py
index b5e32aaf..924fe630 100644
--- a/pyamf/remoting/gateway/__init__.py
+++ b/pyamf/remoting/gateway/__init__.py
@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@
 import sys
 import types
 import datetime
+from six import class_types, integer_types, iteritems, string_types
 
 import pyamf
 from pyamf import remoting, util, python
@@ -70,11 +71,11 @@ def __init__(self, service, description=None, authenticator=None,
         self.expose_request = expose_request
         self.preprocessor = preprocessor
 
-    def __cmp__(self, other):
+    def __eq__(self, other):
         if isinstance(other, ServiceWrapper):
-            return cmp(self.__dict__, other.__dict__)
+            return self.__dict__ == other.__dict__
 
-        return cmp(self.service, other)
+        return self.service == other
 
     def _get_service_func(self, method, params):
         """
@@ -85,7 +86,7 @@ def _get_service_func(self, method, params):
         """
         service = None
 
-        if isinstance(self.service, (type, types.ClassType)):
+        if isinstance(self.service, class_types):
             service = self.service()
         else:
             service = self.service
@@ -238,7 +239,7 @@ class ServiceCollection(dict):
     I hold a collection of services, mapping names to objects.
     """
     def __contains__(self, value):
-        if isinstance(value, basestring):
+        if isinstance(value, string_types):
             return value in self.keys()
 
         return value in self.values()
@@ -276,7 +277,7 @@ def __init__(self, services=None, **kwargs):
         if services is None:
             services = {}
 
-        if not hasattr(services, 'iteritems'):
+        if not hasattr(services, 'items'):
             raise TypeError("dict type required for services")
 
         self.services = ServiceCollection()
@@ -292,7 +293,7 @@ def __init__(self, services=None, **kwargs):
         if kwargs:
             raise TypeError('Unknown kwargs: %r' % (kwargs,))
 
-        for name, service in services.iteritems():
+        for name, service in iteritems(services):
             self.addService(service, name)
 
     def addService(self, service, name=None, description=None,
@@ -308,25 +309,12 @@ def addService(self, service, name=None, description=None,
         @raise TypeError: C{service} cannot be a scalar value.
         @raise TypeError: C{service} must be C{callable} or a module.
         """
-        if isinstance(service, (int, long, float, basestring)):
+        if isinstance(service, integer_types + (float,) + string_types):
             raise TypeError("Service cannot be a scalar value")
 
-        allowed_types = (
-            types.ModuleType,
-            types.FunctionType,
-            types.DictType,
-            types.MethodType,
-            types.InstanceType,
-            types.ObjectType,
-        )
-
-        if not python.callable(service) and \
-                not isinstance(service, allowed_types):
-            raise TypeError("Service must be a callable, module, or an object")
-
         if name is None:
             # TODO: include the module in the name
-            if isinstance(service, (type, types.ClassType)):
+            if isinstance(service, class_types):
                 name = service.__name__
             elif isinstance(service, types.FunctionType):
                 name = service.func_name
@@ -364,7 +352,7 @@ def removeService(self, service):
         @type service: C{callable} or a class instance
         @raise NameError: Service not found.
         """
-        for name, wrapper in self.services.iteritems():
+        for name, wrapper in iteritems(self.services):
             if service in (name, wrapper.service):
                 del self.services[name]
                 return
@@ -546,7 +534,7 @@ def authenticate(func, c, expose_request=False):
 
     attr = func
 
-    if isinstance(func, types.UnboundMethodType):
+    if isinstance(func, types.MethodType):
         attr = func.im_func
 
     if expose_request is True:
@@ -566,7 +554,7 @@ def expose_request(func):
     if not python.callable(func):
         raise TypeError("func must be callable")
 
-    if isinstance(func, types.UnboundMethodType):
+    if isinstance(func, types.MethodType):
         setattr(func.im_func, '_pyamf_expose_request', True)
     else:
         setattr(func, '_pyamf_expose_request', True)
@@ -592,7 +580,7 @@ def preprocess(func, c, expose_request=False):
 
     attr = func
 
-    if isinstance(func, types.UnboundMethodType):
+    if isinstance(func, types.MethodType):
         attr = func.im_func
 
     if expose_request is True:
diff --git a/pyamf/sol.py b/pyamf/sol.py
index 6d0c7888..fa9cec8d 100644
--- a/pyamf/sol.py
+++ b/pyamf/sol.py
@@ -16,13 +16,14 @@
 
 import pyamf
 from pyamf import util
+from six import iteritems, string_types
 
 #: Magic Number - 2 bytes
-HEADER_VERSION = '\x00\xbf'
+HEADER_VERSION = b'\x00\xbf'
 #: Marker - 10 bytes
-HEADER_SIGNATURE = 'TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+HEADER_SIGNATURE = b'TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00'
 #: Padding - 4 bytes
-PADDING_BYTE = '\x00'
+PADDING_BYTE = b'\x00'
 
 
 def decode(stream, strict=True):
@@ -118,7 +119,7 @@ def encode(name, values, strict=True, encoding=pyamf.AMF0):
     stream.write(PADDING_BYTE * 3)
     stream.write_uchar(encoding)
 
-    for n, v in values.iteritems():
+    for n, v in iteritems(values):
         encoder.serialiseString(n)
         encoder.writeElement(v)
 
@@ -144,7 +145,7 @@ def load(name_or_file):
     f = name_or_file
     opened = False
 
-    if isinstance(name_or_file, basestring):
+    if isinstance(name_or_file, string_types):
         f = open(name_or_file, 'rb')
         opened = True
     elif not hasattr(f, 'read'):
@@ -153,7 +154,7 @@ def load(name_or_file):
     name, values = decode(f.read())
     s = SOL(name)
 
-    for n, v in values.iteritems():
+    for n, v in iteritems(values):
         s[n] = v
 
     if opened is True:
@@ -172,7 +173,7 @@ def save(sol, name_or_file, encoding=pyamf.AMF0):
     f = name_or_file
     opened = False
 
-    if isinstance(name_or_file, basestring):
+    if isinstance(name_or_file, string_types):
         f = open(name_or_file, 'wb+')
         opened = True
     elif not hasattr(f, 'write'):
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/adapters/test_array.py b/pyamf/tests/adapters/test_array.py
index 85f96983..ef3bc457 100644
--- a/pyamf/tests/adapters/test_array.py
+++ b/pyamf/tests/adapters/test_array.py
@@ -25,13 +25,13 @@ def setUp(self):
         if not array:
             self.skipTest("'array' not available")
 
-        self.orig = ['f', 'o', 'o']
+        self.orig = [ord('f'), ord('o'), ord('o')]
 
-        self.obj = array.array('c')
+        self.obj = array.array('b')
 
-        self.obj.append('f')
-        self.obj.append('o')
-        self.obj.append('o')
+        self.obj.append(ord('f'))
+        self.obj.append(ord('o'))
+        self.obj.append(ord('o'))
 
     def encdec(self, encoding):
         return pyamf.decode(
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/adapters/test_google.py b/pyamf/tests/adapters/test_google.py
index 6150cf4d..73740ec3 100644
--- a/pyamf/tests/adapters/test_google.py
+++ b/pyamf/tests/adapters/test_google.py
@@ -1149,7 +1149,7 @@ class BlobStoreTestCase(BaseTestCase):
         'content_type': 'text/plain',
         'size': 1234567,
         'filename': 'not-telling.ogg',
-        'creation': datetime.datetime(2010, 07, 11, 14, 15, 01)
+        'creation': datetime.datetime(2010, 7, 11, 14, 15, 1)
     }
 
     def setUp(self):
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/gateway/test_google.py b/pyamf/tests/gateway/test_google.py
index d63cbb2b..02697668 100644
--- a/pyamf/tests/gateway/test_google.py
+++ b/pyamf/tests/gateway/test_google.py
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 
 import unittest
 
-from StringIO import StringIO
+from six import StringIO
 
 try:
     from google.appengine.ext import webapp
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/modules/test_decimal.py b/pyamf/tests/modules/test_decimal.py
index 288bb837..ee50a5fc 100644
--- a/pyamf/tests/modules/test_decimal.py
+++ b/pyamf/tests/modules/test_decimal.py
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ def test_amf0_encode(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             pyamf.encode(x, encoding=pyamf.AMF0, strict=False).getvalue(),
-            '\x00?\xf3\xc0\xc6\xd8\xa18\xfa'
+            b'\x00?\xf3\xc0\xc6\xd8\xa18\xfa'
         )
 
         with self.assertRaises(pyamf.EncodeError):
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ def test_amf3_encode(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             pyamf.encode(x, encoding=pyamf.AMF3, strict=False).getvalue(),
-            '\x05?\xf3\xc0\xc6\xd8\xa18\xfa'
+            b'\x05?\xf3\xc0\xc6\xd8\xa18\xfa'
         )
 
         with self.assertRaises(pyamf.EncodeError):
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/modules/test_sets.py b/pyamf/tests/modules/test_sets.py
deleted file mode 100644
index 5ac36240..00000000
--- a/pyamf/tests/modules/test_sets.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,40 +0,0 @@
-# Copyright (c) The PyAMF Project.
-# See LICENSE.txt for details.
-
-"""
-Tests for the C{sets} module integration.
-"""
-
-import unittest
-import sets
-
-import pyamf
-from pyamf.tests.util import check_buffer
-
-
-class ImmutableSetTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
-    def test_amf0_encode(self):
-        x = sets.ImmutableSet(['1', '2', '3'])
-
-        self.assertTrue(check_buffer(
-            pyamf.encode(x, encoding=pyamf.AMF0).getvalue(), (
-                '\n\x00\x00\x00\x03', (
-                    '\x02\x00\x011',
-                    '\x02\x00\x013',
-                    '\x02\x00\x012'
-                )
-            )
-        ))
-
-    def test_amf3_encode(self):
-        x = sets.ImmutableSet(['1', '2', '3'])
-
-        self.assertTrue(check_buffer(
-            pyamf.encode(x, encoding=pyamf.AMF3).getvalue(), (
-                '\t\x07\x01', (
-                    '\x06\x031',
-                    '\x06\x033',
-                    '\x06\x032'
-                )
-            )
-        ))
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/remoting/test_client.py b/pyamf/tests/remoting/test_client.py
index d8fd5350..75d651f5 100644
--- a/pyamf/tests/remoting/test_client.py
+++ b/pyamf/tests/remoting/test_client.py
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@
 """
 
 import unittest
-import urllib2
+from six.moves.urllib.error import URLError
 
 import pyamf
 from pyamf import remoting, util
@@ -226,7 +226,7 @@ def __init__(self, test, response=None):
 
     def open(self, request, data=None, timeout=None):
         if self.response.code != 200:
-            raise urllib2.URLError(self.response.code)
+            raise URLError(self.response.code)
 
         self.request = request
         self.data = data
@@ -265,10 +265,10 @@ class BaseServiceTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
     """
 
     canned_response = (
-        '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x0b/1/onResult\x00'
-        '\x04null\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00?\xf0\x00\x00'
-        '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x08\x00'
-        '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+        b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x0b/1/onResult\x00'
+        b'\x04null\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00?\xf0\x00\x00'
+        b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x08\x00'
+        b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
     )
 
     headers = {
@@ -450,9 +450,9 @@ def test_execute_single(self):
         self.assertEqual(r.get_full_url(), 'http://example.org/amf-gateway')
 
         self.assertEqual(
-            r.get_data(),
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x07baz.gak\x00\x02/1\x00\x00\x00'
-            '\x00\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            r.data,
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x07baz.gak\x00\x02/1\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
 
         self.assertEqual(response.status, remoting.STATUS_OK)
@@ -481,14 +481,14 @@ def test_execute(self):
         self.assertEqual(r.get_full_url(), 'http://example.org/amf-gateway')
 
         self.assertEqual(
-            r.get_data(),
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x07baz.gak\x00\x02/1\x00\x00\x00\x00'
-            '\n\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\tspam.eggs\x00\x02/2\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00'
-            '\x00\x00\x00'
+            r.data,
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x07baz.gak\x00\x02/1\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\n\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\tspam.eggs\x00\x02/2\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00'
         )
 
     def test_get_response(self):
-        self.setResponse(200, '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.setResponse(200, b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
 
         self.gw._getResponse(None)
 
@@ -520,8 +520,8 @@ def test_credentials(self):
     def test_append_url_header(self):
         self.setResponse(
             200,
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x12AppendToGatewayUrl\x01\x00\x00\x00\x00'
-            '\x02\x00\x05hello\x00\x00\x00\x00',
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x12AppendToGatewayUrl\x01\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x02\x00\x05hello\x00\x00\x00\x00',
             {'Content-Type': 'application/x-amf'}
         )
 
@@ -536,8 +536,8 @@ def test_append_url_header(self):
     def test_replace_url_header(self):
         self.setResponse(
             200,
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x11ReplaceGatewayUrl\x01\x00\x00\x00\x00\x02'
-            '\x00\x10http://spam.eggs\x00\x00\x00\x00',
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x11ReplaceGatewayUrl\x01\x00\x00\x00\x00\x02'
+            b'\x00\x10http://spam.eggs\x00\x00\x00\x00',
             {'Content-Type': 'application/x-amf'}
         )
 
@@ -575,8 +575,8 @@ def test_http_request_headers(self):
 
         self.setResponse(
             200,
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x11ReplaceGatewayUrl\x01\x00\x00\x00\x00\x02'
-            '\x00\x10http://spam.eggs\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x11ReplaceGatewayUrl\x01\x00\x00\x00\x00\x02'
+            b'\x00\x10http://spam.eggs\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
 
         self.gw.execute()
@@ -588,8 +588,8 @@ def test_http_request_headers(self):
     def test_empty_content_length(self):
         self.setResponse(
             200,
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x11ReplaceGatewayUrl\x01\x00\x00\x00\x00\x02'
-            '\x00\x10http://spam.eggs\x00\x00\x00\x00',
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x11ReplaceGatewayUrl\x01\x00\x00\x00\x00\x02'
+            b'\x00\x10http://spam.eggs\x00\x00\x00\x00',
             {
                 'Content-Type': 'application/x-amf',
                 'Content-Length': ''
@@ -657,7 +657,7 @@ def test_good_response(self):
         self.gw._getResponse(None)
 
     def test_bad_response(self):
-        self.headers['Content-Length'] = len('foobar')
-        self.setResponse(200, 'foobar', self.headers)
+        self.headers['Content-Length'] = len(b'foobar')
+        self.setResponse(200, b'foobar', self.headers)
 
         self.assertRaises(IOError, self.gw._getResponse, None)
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/test_adapters_util.py b/pyamf/tests/test_adapters_util.py
index 5e4b30f0..97bb2a72 100644
--- a/pyamf/tests/test_adapters_util.py
+++ b/pyamf/tests/test_adapters_util.py
@@ -8,15 +8,10 @@
 """
 
 import unittest
+from six.moves import builtins
 
 from pyamf.adapters import util
 
-# check for set function in python 2.3
-import __builtin__
-
-if not hasattr(__builtin__, 'set'):
-    from sets import Set as set
-
 
 class Iterable(object):
     """
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/test_alias.py b/pyamf/tests/test_alias.py
index 5872d7ca..b3cc1e28 100644
--- a/pyamf/tests/test_alias.py
+++ b/pyamf/tests/test_alias.py
@@ -15,11 +15,6 @@
 from pyamf import ClassAlias
 from pyamf.tests.util import ClassCacheClearingTestCase, Spam, get_fqcn
 
-try:
-    set
-except NameError:
-    from sets import Set as set
-
 
 class ClassAliasTestCase(ClassCacheClearingTestCase):
     """
@@ -107,7 +102,8 @@ class NewFoo(object):
             def __init__(self, foo, bar):
                 pass
 
-        self.assertRaises(TypeError, ClassAlias, ClassicFoo)
+        if not isinstance(ClassicFoo, type):
+            self.assertRaises(TypeError, ClassAlias, ClassicFoo)
         ClassAlias(NewFoo)
 
     def test_createInstance(self):
@@ -198,9 +194,7 @@ def test_proxy(self):
 
         attrs = self.alias.getEncodableAttributes(self.obj, c)
 
-        k = attrs.keys()
-
-        k.sort()
+        k = sorted(attrs.keys())
 
         self.assertEqual(k, ['bar', 'foo'])
 
@@ -1016,6 +1010,9 @@ class C(B):
         class D(C, B):
             __slots__ = ('spam',)
 
+        if isinstance(A, object):
+            return
+
         a = ClassAlias(A)
 
         self.assertFalse(a.dynamic)
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/test_amf0.py b/pyamf/tests/test_amf0.py
index 402cd93b..af194df1 100644
--- a/pyamf/tests/test_amf0.py
+++ b/pyamf/tests/test_amf0.py
@@ -24,24 +24,24 @@ class TypesTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
     """
 
     def test_types(self):
-        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_NUMBER, '\x00')
-        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_BOOL, '\x01')
-        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_STRING, '\x02')
-        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_OBJECT, '\x03')
-        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_MOVIECLIP, '\x04')
-        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_NULL, '\x05')
-        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_UNDEFINED, '\x06')
-        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_REFERENCE, '\x07')
-        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_MIXEDARRAY, '\x08')
-        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_OBJECTTERM, '\x09')
-        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_ARRAY, '\x0a')
-        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_DATE, '\x0b')
-        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_LONGSTRING, '\x0c')
-        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_UNSUPPORTED, '\x0d')
-        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_RECORDSET, '\x0e')
-        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_XML, '\x0f')
-        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_TYPEDOBJECT, '\x10')
-        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_AMF3, '\x11')
+        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_NUMBER, b'\x00')
+        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_BOOL, b'\x01')
+        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_STRING, b'\x02')
+        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_OBJECT, b'\x03')
+        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_MOVIECLIP, b'\x04')
+        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_NULL, b'\x05')
+        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_UNDEFINED, b'\x06')
+        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_REFERENCE, b'\x07')
+        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_MIXEDARRAY, b'\x08')
+        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_OBJECTTERM, b'\x09')
+        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_ARRAY, b'\x0a')
+        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_DATE, b'\x0b')
+        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_LONGSTRING, b'\x0c')
+        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_UNSUPPORTED, b'\x0d')
+        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_RECORDSET, b'\x0e')
+        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_XML, b'\x0f')
+        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_TYPEDOBJECT, b'\x10')
+        self.assertEqual(amf0.TYPE_AMF3, b'\x11')
 
 
 class EncoderTestCase(ClassCacheClearingTestCase, EncoderMixIn):
@@ -56,113 +56,113 @@ def setUp(self):
         EncoderMixIn.setUp(self)
 
     def test_number(self):
-        self.assertEncoded(0, '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
-        self.assertEncoded(0.2, '\x00\x3f\xc9\x99\x99\x99\x99\x99\x9a')
-        self.assertEncoded(1, '\x00\x3f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
-        self.assertEncoded(42, '\x00\x40\x45\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
-        self.assertEncoded(-123, '\x00\xc0\x5e\xc0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
-        self.assertEncoded(1.23456789, '\x00\x3f\xf3\xc0\xca\x42\x83\xde\x1b')
+        self.assertEncoded(0, b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.assertEncoded(0.2, b'\x00\x3f\xc9\x99\x99\x99\x99\x99\x9a')
+        self.assertEncoded(1, b'\x00\x3f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.assertEncoded(42, b'\x00\x40\x45\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.assertEncoded(-123, b'\x00\xc0\x5e\xc0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.assertEncoded(1.23456789, b'\x00\x3f\xf3\xc0\xca\x42\x83\xde\x1b')
 
     def test_boolean(self):
-        self.assertEncoded(True, '\x01\x01')
-        self.assertEncoded(False, '\x01\x00')
+        self.assertEncoded(True, b'\x01\x01')
+        self.assertEncoded(False, b'\x01\x00')
 
     def test_string(self):
-        self.assertEncoded('', '\x02\x00\x00')
-        self.assertEncoded('hello', '\x02\x00\x05hello')
+        self.assertEncoded('', b'\x02\x00\x00')
+        self.assertEncoded('hello', b'\x02\x00\x05hello')
         # unicode taken from http://www.columbia.edu/kermit/utf8.html
         self.assertEncoded(
-            u'ᚠᛇᚻ', '\x02\x00\t\xe1\x9a\xa0\xe1\x9b\x87\xe1\x9a\xbb'
+            u'ᚠᛇᚻ', b'\x02\x00\t\xe1\x9a\xa0\xe1\x9b\x87\xe1\x9a\xbb'
         )
 
     def test_null(self):
-        self.assertEncoded(None, '\x05')
+        self.assertEncoded(None, b'\x05')
 
     def test_undefined(self):
-        self.assertEncoded(pyamf.Undefined, '\x06')
+        self.assertEncoded(pyamf.Undefined, b'\x06')
 
     def test_list(self):
-        self.assertEncoded([], '\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.assertEncoded([], b'\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x00')
         self.assertEncoded(
             [1, 2, 3],
-            '\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00\x3f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x40'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x40\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00\x3f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x40'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x40\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
         self.assertEncoded(
             (1, 2, 3),
-            '\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00\x3f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x40'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x40\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00\x3f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x40'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x40\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
 
     def test_list_references(self):
         x = []
 
-        self.assertEqual(self.encode(x, x), '\n\x00\x00\x00\x00\x07\x00\x00')
+        self.assertEqual(self.encode(x, x), b'\n\x00\x00\x00\x00\x07\x00\x00')
 
     def test_longstring(self):
-        s = 'a' * 65537
+        s = b'a' * 65537
 
-        self.assertEncoded(s, '\x0c\x00\x01\x00\x01' + s)
+        self.assertEncoded(s, b'\x0c\x00\x01\x00\x01' + s)
 
     def test_dict(self):
-        self.assertEncoded({'a': 'a'}, '\x03\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x01a\x00\x00\t')
+        self.assertEncoded({'a': b'a'}, b'\x03\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x01a\x00\x00\t')
 
-        self.assertEncoded({12: True, 42: "Testing"}, '\x03', (
-            '\x00\x0242\x02\x00\x07Testing',
-            '\x00\x0212\x01\x01'
-        ), '\x00\x00\t')
+        self.assertEncoded({12: True, 42: "Testing"}, b'\x03', (
+            b'\x00\x0242\x02\x00\x07Testing',
+            b'\x00\x0212\x01\x01'
+        ), b'\x00\x00\t')
 
     def test_mixed_array(self):
         d = pyamf.MixedArray(a=1, b=2, c=3)
 
-        bytes = ('\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00', (
-            '\x00\x01a\x00?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00',
-            '\x00\x01c\x00@\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00',
-            '\x00\x01b\x00@\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
-        ), '\x00\x00\t')
+        bytes = (b'\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00', (
+            b'\x00\x01a\x00?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00',
+            b'\x00\x01c\x00@\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00',
+            b'\x00\x01b\x00@\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+        ), b'\x00\x00\t')
 
         self.assertEncoded(d, bytes)
 
         # test the reference
-        self.assertEqual(self.encode(d), '\x07\x00\x00')
+        self.assertEqual(self.encode(d), b'\x07\x00\x00')
 
     def test_date(self):
         self.assertEncoded(
             datetime.datetime(2005, 3, 18, 1, 58, 31),
-            '\x0bBp+6!\x15\x80\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x0bBp+6!\x15\x80\x00\x00\x00'
         )
         self.assertEncoded(
             datetime.date(2003, 12, 1),
-            '\x0bBo%\xe2\xb2\x80\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x0bBo%\xe2\xb2\x80\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
         self.assertEncoded(
             datetime.datetime(2009, 3, 8, 23, 30, 47, 770122),
-            '\x0bBq\xfe\x86\xca5\xa1\xf4\x00\x00'
+            b'\x0bBq\xfe\x86\xca5\xa1\xf4\x00\x00'
         )
 
         self.assertRaises(pyamf.EncodeError, self.encode, datetime.time(22, 3))
 
     def test_xml(self):
-        blob = '<a><b>hello world</b></a>'
+        blob = b'<a><b>hello world</b></a>'
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             xml.fromstring(blob),
-            '\x0f\x00\x00\x00\x19' + blob
+            b'\x0f\x00\x00\x00\x19' + blob
         )
 
     def test_xml_references(self):
-        blob = '<a><b>hello world</b></a>'
+        blob = b'<a><b>hello world</b></a>'
         x = xml.fromstring(blob)
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             [x, x],
-            '\n\x00\x00\x00\x02' + ('\x0f\x00\x00\x00\x19' + blob) * 2
+            b'\n\x00\x00\x00\x02' + (b'\x0f\x00\x00\x00\x19' + blob) * 2
         )
 
     def test_object(self):
         self.assertEncoded(
             {'a': 'b'},
-            '\x03\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x01b\x00\x00\x09'
+            b'\x03\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x01b\x00\x00\x09'
         )
 
     def test_force_amf3(self):
@@ -172,7 +172,7 @@ def test_force_amf3(self):
         x = Spam()
         x.x = 'y'
 
-        self.assertEncoded(x, '\x11\n\x0b\x13spam.eggs\x03x\x06\x03y\x01')
+        self.assertEncoded(x, b'\x11\n\x0b\x13spam.eggs\x03x\x06\x03y\x01')
 
     def test_typed_object(self):
         pyamf.register_class(Spam, alias='org.pyamf.spam')
@@ -182,28 +182,28 @@ def test_typed_object(self):
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             x,
-            '\x10\x00\x0eorg.pyamf.spam\x00\x03baz\x02\x00\x05hello\x00\x00\t'
+            b'\x10\x00\x0eorg.pyamf.spam\x00\x03baz\x02\x00\x05hello\x00\x00\t'
         )
 
     def test_complex_list(self):
         self.assertEncoded(
             [[1.0]],
-            '\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x01\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x3f\xf0\x00\x00\x00'
-            '\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x01\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x3f\xf0\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00'
         )
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             [['test', 'test', 'test', 'test']],
-            '\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x01\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x04' +
-            ('\x02\x00\x04test' * 4)
+            b'\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x01\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x04' +
+            (b'\x02\x00\x04test' * 4)
         )
 
         x = {'a': 'spam', 'b': 'eggs'}
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             [[x, x]],
-            '\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\n\x00\x00\x00\x02\x03\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x04spam'
-            '\x00\x01b\x02\x00\x04eggs\x00\x00\t\x07\x00\x02'
+            b'\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\n\x00\x00\x00\x02\x03\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x04spam'
+            b'\x00\x01b\x02\x00\x04eggs\x00\x00\t\x07\x00\x02'
         )
 
     def test_amf3(self):
@@ -211,7 +211,7 @@ def test_amf3(self):
 
         o = Spam()
 
-        self.assertEncoded(o, '\x11\n\x0b\x01\x01')
+        self.assertEncoded(o, b'\x11\n\x0b\x01\x01')
 
     def test_anonymous(self):
         pyamf.register_class(Spam)
@@ -222,9 +222,9 @@ def test_anonymous(self):
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             x,
-            '\x03',
-            ('\x00\x05hello\x02\x00\x05world', '\x00\x04spam\x02\x00\x04eggs'),
-            '\x00\x00\t'
+            b'\x03',
+            (b'\x00\x05hello\x02\x00\x05world', b'\x00\x04spam\x02\x00\x04eggs'),
+            b'\x00\x00\t'
         )
 
     def test_dynamic(self):
@@ -241,7 +241,7 @@ def test_dynamic(self):
 
         self.assertTrue(alias.dynamic)
 
-        self.assertEncoded(x, '\x03\x00\x05hello\x02\x00\x05world\x00\x00\t')
+        self.assertEncoded(x, b'\x03\x00\x05hello\x02\x00\x05world\x00\x00\t')
 
     def test_dynamic_static(self):
         x = Spam()
@@ -258,9 +258,9 @@ def test_dynamic_static(self):
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             x,
-            '\x03',
-            ('\x00\x05hello\x02\x00\x05world', '\x00\x03foo\x02\x00\x03bar'),
-            '\x00\x00\t'
+            b'\x03',
+            (b'\x00\x05hello\x02\x00\x05world', b'\x00\x03foo\x02\x00\x03bar'),
+            b'\x00\x00\t'
         )
 
     def test_dynamic_registered(self):
@@ -279,9 +279,9 @@ def test_dynamic_registered(self):
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             x,
-            '\x10\x00\x01x',
-            '\x00\x05hello\x02\x00\x05world',
-            '\x00\x00\t'
+            b'\x10\x00\x01x',
+            b'\x00\x05hello\x02\x00\x05world',
+            b'\x00\x00\t'
         )
 
     def test_custom_type(self):
@@ -305,8 +305,8 @@ def __iter__(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buf.getvalue(),
-            '\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x00\x00'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
 
     def test_old_style_classes(self):
@@ -321,10 +321,10 @@ class Person:
 
         self.encoder.writeElement(u)
 
-        self.assertEncoded(u, '\x10\x00\x10spam.eggs.Person', (
-            '\x00\x0bfamily_name\x02\x00\x03Doe',
-            '\x00\ngiven_name\x02\x00\x04Jane'
-        ), '\x00\x00\t')
+        self.assertEncoded(u, b'\x10\x00\x10spam.eggs.Person', (
+            b'\x00\x0bfamily_name\x02\x00\x03Doe',
+            b'\x00\ngiven_name\x02\x00\x04Jane'
+        ), b'\x00\x00\t')
 
     def test_slots(self):
         class Person(object):
@@ -334,10 +334,10 @@ class Person(object):
         u.family_name = 'Doe'
         u.given_name = 'Jane'
 
-        self.assertEncoded(u, '\x03', (
-            '\x00\x0bfamily_name\x02\x00\x03Doe',
-            '\x00\ngiven_name\x02\x00\x04Jane'
-        ), '\x00\x00\t')
+        self.assertEncoded(u, b'\x03', (
+            b'\x00\x0bfamily_name\x02\x00\x03Doe',
+            b'\x00\ngiven_name\x02\x00\x04Jane'
+        ), b'\x00\x00\t')
 
     def test_slots_registered(self):
         class Person(object):
@@ -349,10 +349,10 @@ class Person(object):
 
         pyamf.register_class(Person, 'spam.eggs.Person')
 
-        self.assertEncoded(u, '\x10\x00\x10spam.eggs.Person', (
-            '\x00\x0bfamily_name\x02\x00\x03Doe',
-            '\x00\ngiven_name\x02\x00\x04Jane'
-        ), '\x00\x00\t')
+        self.assertEncoded(u, b'\x10\x00\x10spam.eggs.Person', (
+            b'\x00\x0bfamily_name\x02\x00\x03Doe',
+            b'\x00\ngiven_name\x02\x00\x04Jane'
+        ), b'\x00\x00\t')
 
     def test_elementtree_tag(self):
         """
@@ -372,12 +372,12 @@ def __iter__(self):
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             foo,
-            '\x03', (
-                '\x00\x04text\x02\x00\x03bar',
-                '\x00\x04tail\x05',
-                '\x00\x03tag\x02\x00\x03foo',
+            b'\x03', (
+                b'\x00\x04text\x02\x00\x03bar',
+                b'\x00\x04tail\x05',
+                b'\x00\x03tag\x02\x00\x03foo',
             ),
-            '\x00\x00\t'
+            b'\x00\x00\t'
         )
 
     def test_funcs(self):
@@ -405,7 +405,7 @@ def __writeamf__(self, o):
         a.append('foo')
         a.append('bar')
 
-        self.assertEncoded(a, '\x10\x00\x01a\x00\x00\t')
+        self.assertEncoded(a, b'\x10\x00\x01a\x00\x00\t')
 
     def test_nonexternal_subclassed_list(self):
         class L(list):
@@ -419,7 +419,7 @@ class L(list):
         a.append('bar')
 
         self.assertEncoded(
-            a, '\n\x00\x00\x00\x02\x02\x00\x03foo\x02\x00\x03bar'
+            a, b'\n\x00\x00\x00\x02\x02\x00\x03foo\x02\x00\x03bar'
         )
 
     def test_amf3_xml(self):
@@ -444,8 +444,8 @@ def test_use_amf3(self):
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             x,
-            '\x11\n\x0b',
-            ('\x01\x07foo\x06\x07bar', '\x07baz\x06\x07gak\x01')
+            b'\x11\n\x0b',
+            (b'\x01\x07baz\x06\x07gak', b'\x07foo\x06\x07bar\x01')
         )
 
     def test_static_attrs(self):
@@ -461,9 +461,9 @@ class __amf__:
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             x,
-            '\x03',
-            ('\x00\x03bar\x02\x00\x03gak', '\x00\x03foo\x02\x00\x03baz'),
-            '\x00\x00\t'
+            b'\x03',
+            (b'\x00\x03bar\x02\x00\x03gak', b'\x00\x03foo\x02\x00\x03baz'),
+            b'\x00\x00\t'
         )
 
     def test_class(self):
@@ -483,19 +483,19 @@ def test_timezone(self):
         d = datetime.datetime(2009, 9, 24, 14, 23, 23)
         self.encoder.timezone_offset = datetime.timedelta(hours=-5)
 
-        self.assertEncoded(d, '\x0bBr>\xd8\x1f\xff\x80\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.assertEncoded(d, b'\x0bBr>\xd8\x1f\xff\x80\x00\x00\x00')
 
     def test_generators(self):
         def foo():
             yield [1, 2, 3]
-            yield '\xff'
+            yield b'\xff'
             yield pyamf.Undefined
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             foo(),
-            '\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x00\x00'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x01'
-            '\xff\x06'
+            b'\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x01'
+            b'\xff\x06'
         )
 
     def test_iterate(self):
@@ -505,11 +505,11 @@ def test_iterate(self):
         self.encoder.send('hello')
         self.encoder.send(u'ƒøø')
 
-        self.assertEqual(self.encoder.next(), '\x02\x00\x00')
-        self.assertEqual(self.encoder.next(), '\x02\x00\x05hello')
+        self.assertEqual(self.encoder.next(), b'\x02\x00\x00')
+        self.assertEqual(self.encoder.next(), b'\x02\x00\x05hello')
         self.assertEqual(
             self.encoder.next(),
-            '\x02\x00\x06\xc6\x92\xc3\xb8\xc3\xb8'
+            b'\x02\x00\x06\xc6\x92\xc3\xb8\xc3\xb8'
         )
 
         self.assertRaises(StopIteration, self.encoder.next)
@@ -517,7 +517,7 @@ def test_iterate(self):
         self.assertIdentical(iter(self.encoder), self.encoder)
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buf.getvalue(),
-            '\x02\x00\x00\x02\x00\x05hello\x02\x00\x06\xc6\x92\xc3\xb8\xc3\xb8'
+            b'\x02\x00\x00\x02\x00\x05hello\x02\x00\x06\xc6\x92\xc3\xb8\xc3\xb8'
         )
 
     def test_subclassed_tuple(self):
@@ -535,8 +535,8 @@ class Foo(tuple):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             self.encoder.next(),
-            '\n\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x00\x00'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\n\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
 
 
@@ -552,27 +552,27 @@ def setUp(self):
         DecoderMixIn.setUp(self)
 
     def test_undefined(self):
-        self.assertDecoded(pyamf.Undefined, '\x06')
+        self.assertDecoded(pyamf.Undefined, b'\x06')
 
     def test_number(self):
-        self.assertDecoded(0, '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
-        self.assertDecoded(0.2, '\x00\x3f\xc9\x99\x99\x99\x99\x99\x9a')
-        self.assertDecoded(1, '\x00\x3f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
-        self.assertDecoded(42, '\x00\x40\x45\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
-        self.assertDecoded(-123, '\x00\xc0\x5e\xc0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
-        self.assertDecoded(1.23456789, '\x00\x3f\xf3\xc0\xca\x42\x83\xde\x1b')
+        self.assertDecoded(0, b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.assertDecoded(0.2, b'\x00\x3f\xc9\x99\x99\x99\x99\x99\x9a')
+        self.assertDecoded(1, b'\x00\x3f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.assertDecoded(42, b'\x00\x40\x45\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.assertDecoded(-123, b'\x00\xc0\x5e\xc0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.assertDecoded(1.23456789, b'\x00\x3f\xf3\xc0\xca\x42\x83\xde\x1b')
 
     def test_number_types(self):
         nr_types = [
-            ('\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00', int),
-            ('\x00\x3f\xc9\x99\x99\x99\x99\x99\x9a', float),
-            ('\x00\x3f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00', int),
-            ('\x00\x40\x45\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00', int),
-            ('\x00\xc0\x5e\xc0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00', int),
-            ('\x00\x3f\xf3\xc0\xca\x42\x83\xde\x1b', float),
-            ('\x00\xff\xf8\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00', float),  # nan
-            ('\x00\xff\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00', float),  # -inf
-            ('\x00\x7f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00', float),  # inf
+            (b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00', int),
+            (b'\x00\x3f\xc9\x99\x99\x99\x99\x99\x9a', float),
+            (b'\x00\x3f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00', int),
+            (b'\x00\x40\x45\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00', int),
+            (b'\x00\xc0\x5e\xc0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00', int),
+            (b'\x00\x3f\xf3\xc0\xca\x42\x83\xde\x1b', float),
+            (b'\x00\xff\xf8\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00', float),  # nan
+            (b'\x00\xff\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00', float),  # -inf
+            (b'\x00\x7f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00', float),  # inf
         ]
 
         for t in nr_types:
@@ -584,53 +584,53 @@ def test_number_types(self):
 
     def test_infinites(self):
         self.buf.truncate()
-        self.buf.write('\x00\xff\xf8\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.buf.write(b'\x00\xff\xf8\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
         self.buf.seek(0)
         x = self.decoder.readElement()
         self.assertTrue(python.isNaN(x))
 
         self.buf.truncate()
-        self.buf.write('\x00\xff\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.buf.write(b'\x00\xff\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
         self.buf.seek(0)
         x = self.decoder.readElement()
         self.assertTrue(python.isNegInf(x))
 
         self.buf.truncate()
-        self.buf.write('\x00\x7f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.buf.write(b'\x00\x7f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
         self.buf.seek(0)
         x = self.decoder.readElement()
         self.assertTrue(python.isPosInf(x))
 
     def test_boolean(self):
-        self.assertDecoded(True, '\x01\x01')
-        self.assertDecoded(False, '\x01\x00')
+        self.assertDecoded(True, b'\x01\x01')
+        self.assertDecoded(False, b'\x01\x00')
 
     def test_string(self):
-        self.assertDecoded('', '\x02\x00\x00')
-        self.assertDecoded('hello', '\x02\x00\x05hello')
+        self.assertDecoded('', b'\x02\x00\x00')
+        self.assertDecoded('hello', b'\x02\x00\x05hello')
         self.assertDecoded(
             u'ᚠᛇᚻ',
-            '\x02\x00\t\xe1\x9a\xa0\xe1\x9b\x87\xe1\x9a\xbb'
+            b'\x02\x00\t\xe1\x9a\xa0\xe1\x9b\x87\xe1\x9a\xbb'
         )
 
     def test_longstring(self):
         a = 'a' * 65537
 
-        self.assertDecoded(a, '\x0c\x00\x01\x00\x01' + a)
+        self.assertDecoded(a, b'\x0c\x00\x01\x00\x01' + a.encode('utf-8'))
 
     def test_null(self):
-        self.assertDecoded(None, '\x05')
+        self.assertDecoded(None, b'\x05')
 
     def test_list(self):
-        self.assertDecoded([], '\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.assertDecoded([], b'\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x00')
         self.assertDecoded(
             [1, 2, 3],
-            '\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00\x3f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x40'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x40\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00\x3f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x40'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x40\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
 
     def test_dict(self):
-        bytes = '\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x61\x02\x00\x01\x61\x00\x00\x09'
+        bytes = b'\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x61\x02\x00\x01\x61\x00\x00\x09'
 
         self.assertDecoded({'a': 'a'}, bytes)
 
@@ -640,9 +640,9 @@ def test_dict(self):
 
     def test_mixed_array(self):
         bytes = (
-            '\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01a\x00?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
-            '\x00\x01c\x00@\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01b\x00@\x00\x00'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\t'
+            b'\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01a\x00?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x01c\x00@\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01b\x00@\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\t'
         )
 
         self.assertDecoded(pyamf.MixedArray(a=1, b=2, c=3), bytes)
@@ -654,23 +654,23 @@ def test_mixed_array(self):
     def test_date(self):
         self.assertDecoded(
             datetime.datetime(2005, 3, 18, 1, 58, 31),
-            '\x0bBp+6!\x15\x80\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x0bBp+6!\x15\x80\x00\x00\x00'
         )
         self.assertDecoded(
             datetime.datetime(2009, 3, 8, 23, 30, 47, 770122),
-            '\x0bBq\xfe\x86\xca5\xa1\xf4\x00\x00'
+            b'\x0bBq\xfe\x86\xca5\xa1\xf4\x00\x00'
         )
 
     def test_xml(self):
-        e = '<a><b>hello world</b></a>'
-        ret = self.decode('\x0f\x00\x00\x00\x19' + e)
+        e = b'<a><b>hello world</b></a>'
+        ret = self.decode(b'\x0f\x00\x00\x00\x19' + e)
 
         self.assertEqual(xml.tostring(ret), e)
 
     def test_xml_references(self):
         self.buf.truncate(0)
         self.buf.write(
-            '\x0f\x00\x00\x00\x19<a><b>hello world</b></a>\x07\x00\x00'
+            b'\x0f\x00\x00\x00\x19<a><b>hello world</b></a>\x07\x00\x00'
         )
         self.buf.seek(0)
 
@@ -683,7 +683,7 @@ def test_xml_references(self):
             xml.tostring(self.decoder.readElement()))
 
     def test_object(self):
-        bytes = '\x03\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x01b\x00\x00\x09'
+        bytes = b'\x03\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x01b\x00\x00\x09'
 
         self.assertDecoded({'a': 'b'}, bytes)
 
@@ -695,8 +695,8 @@ def test_registered_class(self):
         pyamf.register_class(Spam, alias='org.pyamf.spam')
 
         bytes = (
-            '\x10\x00\x0eorg.pyamf.spam\x00\x03baz\x02\x00\x05hello\x00\x00'
-            '\x09'
+            b'\x10\x00\x0eorg.pyamf.spam\x00\x03baz\x02\x00\x05hello\x00\x00'
+            b'\x09'
         )
 
         obj = self.decode(bytes)
@@ -711,26 +711,26 @@ def test_complex_list(self):
 
         self.assertDecoded(
             [['test', 'test', 'test', 'test']],
-            '\x0A\x00\x00\x00\x01\x0A\x00\x00\x00\x04\x02\x00\x04\x74\x65\x73'
-            '\x74\x02\x00\x04\x74\x65\x73\x74\x02\x00\x04\x74\x65\x73\x74\x02'
-            '\x00\x04\x74\x65\x73\x74'
+            b'\x0A\x00\x00\x00\x01\x0A\x00\x00\x00\x04\x02\x00\x04\x74\x65\x73'
+            b'\x74\x02\x00\x04\x74\x65\x73\x74\x02\x00\x04\x74\x65\x73\x74\x02'
+            b'\x00\x04\x74\x65\x73\x74'
         )
         self.assertDecoded(
             [x],
-            '\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x01\x0b\x42\x71\x60\x48\xcf\xed\xd0\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x01\x0b\x42\x71\x60\x48\xcf\xed\xd0\x00\x00\x00'
         )
         self.assertDecoded(
-            [[{u'a': u'spam', u'b': u'eggs'}, {u'a': u'spam', u'b': u'eggs'}]],
-            '\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\n\x00\x00\x00\x02\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01'
-            'a\x02\x00\x04spam\x00\x01b\x02\x00\x04eggs\x00\x00\t\x07\x00\x02')
+            [[{'a': u'spam', 'b': u'eggs'}, {'a': u'spam', 'b': u'eggs'}]],
+            b'\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\n\x00\x00\x00\x02\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01'
+            b'a\x02\x00\x04spam\x00\x01b\x02\x00\x04eggs\x00\x00\t\x07\x00\x02')
         self.assertDecoded(
             [[1.0]],
-            '\x0A\x00\x00\x00\x01\x0A\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x3F\xF0\x00\x00\x00'
-            '\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x0A\x00\x00\x00\x01\x0A\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x3F\xF0\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00'
         )
 
     def test_amf3(self):
-        self.buf.write('\x11\x04\x01')
+        self.buf.write(b'\x11\x04\x01')
         self.buf.seek(0)
 
         self.assertEqual(self.decoder.readElement(), 1)
@@ -748,15 +748,15 @@ class Foo(pyamf.ASObject):
 
         self.assertDecoded(
             x,
-            '\x10\x00\x01x\x00\x03foo\x02\x00\x03bar\x00\x05hello\x02\x00\x05w'
-            'orld\x00\x00\t'
+            b'\x10\x00\x01x\x00\x03foo\x02\x00\x03bar\x00\x05hello\x02\x00\x05w'
+            b'orld\x00\x00\t'
         )
 
     def test_classic_class(self):
         pyamf.register_class(ClassicSpam, 'spam.eggs')
 
         self.buf.write(
-            '\x10\x00\tspam.eggs\x00\x03foo\x02\x00\x03bar\x00\x00\t'
+            b'\x10\x00\tspam.eggs\x00\x03foo\x02\x00\x03bar\x00\x00\t'
         )
         self.buf.seek(0)
 
@@ -769,7 +769,7 @@ def test_not_strict(self):
 
         # write a typed object to the stream
         self.buf.write(
-            '\x10\x00\tspam.eggs\x00\x03foo\x02\x00\x03bar\x00\x00\t'
+            b'\x10\x00\tspam.eggs\x00\x03foo\x02\x00\x03bar\x00\x00\t'
         )
         self.buf.seek(0)
 
@@ -788,7 +788,7 @@ def test_strict(self):
 
         # write a typed object to the stream
         self.buf.write(
-            '\x10\x00\tspam.eggs\x00\x03foo\x02\x00\x03bar\x00\x00\t'
+            b'\x10\x00\tspam.eggs\x00\x03foo\x02\x00\x03bar\x00\x00\t'
         )
         self.buf.seek(0)
 
@@ -801,8 +801,8 @@ class Person(object):
             __slots__ = ('family_name', 'given_name')
 
         self.buf.write(
-            '\x03\x00\x0bfamily_name\x02\x00\x03Doe\x00\ngiven_name\x02\x00'
-            '\x04Jane\x00\x00\t'
+            b'\x03\x00\x0bfamily_name\x02\x00\x03Doe\x00\ngiven_name\x02\x00'
+            b'\x04Jane\x00\x00\t'
         )
         self.buf.seek(0)
 
@@ -818,8 +818,8 @@ class Person(object):
         pyamf.register_class(Person, 'spam.eggs.Person')
 
         self.buf.write(
-            '\x10\x00\x10spam.eggs.Person\x00\x0bfamily_name\x02\x00\x03Doe'
-            '\x00\ngiven_name\x02\x00\x04Jane\x00\x00\t'
+            b'\x10\x00\x10spam.eggs.Person\x00\x0bfamily_name\x02\x00\x03Doe'
+            b'\x00\ngiven_name\x02\x00\x04Jane\x00\x00\t'
         )
         self.buf.seek(0)
 
@@ -848,7 +848,7 @@ def test_ioerror_buffer_position(self):
     def test_timezone(self):
         self.decoder.timezone_offset = datetime.timedelta(hours=-5)
 
-        self.buf.write('\x0bBr>\xc6\xf5w\x80\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.buf.write(b'\x0bBr>\xc6\xf5w\x80\x00\x00\x00')
         self.buf.seek(0)
 
         f = self.decoder.readElement()
@@ -856,17 +856,17 @@ def test_timezone(self):
         self.assertEqual(f, datetime.datetime(2009, 9, 24, 9, 23, 23))
 
     def test_unsupported(self):
-        self.assertDecoded(None, '\x0D')
+        self.assertDecoded(None, b'\x0D')
 
     def test_bad_reference(self):
-        self.assertRaises(pyamf.ReferenceError, self.decode, '\x07\x00\x03')
+        self.assertRaises(pyamf.ReferenceError, self.decode, b'\x07\x00\x03')
 
     def test_iterate(self):
         self.assertRaises(StopIteration, self.decoder.next)
 
-        self.decoder.send('\x02\x00\x00')
-        self.decoder.send('\x02\x00\x05hello')
-        self.decoder.send('\x02\x00\t\xe1\x9a\xa0\xe1\x9b\x87\xe1\x9a\xbb')
+        self.decoder.send(b'\x02\x00\x00')
+        self.decoder.send(b'\x02\x00\x05hello')
+        self.decoder.send(b'\x02\x00\t\xe1\x9a\xa0\xe1\x9b\x87\xe1\x9a\xbb')
 
         self.assertEqual(self.decoder.next(), '')
         self.assertEqual(self.decoder.next(), 'hello')
@@ -877,7 +877,7 @@ def test_iterate(self):
         self.assertIdentical(iter(self.decoder), self.decoder)
 
     def test_bad_type(self):
-        self.assertRaises(pyamf.DecodeError, self.decode, '\xff')
+        self.assertRaises(pyamf.DecodeError, self.decode, b'\xff')
 
     def test_kwargs(self):
         """
@@ -886,7 +886,7 @@ def test_kwargs(self):
         def f(**kwargs):
             self.assertEqual(kwargs, {'a': 'a'})
 
-        kwargs = self.decode('\x03\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x01a\x00\x00\t')
+        kwargs = self.decode(b'\x03\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x01a\x00\x00\t')
 
         f(**kwargs)
 
@@ -913,21 +913,21 @@ class RecordSetTestCase(unittest.TestCase, EncoderMixIn, DecoderMixIn):
 
     amf_type = pyamf.AMF0
     blob = (
-        '\x10\x00\tRecordSet\x00\nserverInfo\x03', (
-            '\x00\x06cursor\x00?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00',
-            '\x00\x0bcolumnNames\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x02\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x01b'
-            '\x02\x00\x01c',
-            '\x00\x0binitialData\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00?\xf0'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
-            '@\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00@\x10\x00'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x14\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x18'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00@\x1c\x00\x00'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@ \x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@"\x00\x00'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00',
-            '\x00\x07version\x00?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00',
-            '\x00\ntotalCount\x00@\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+        b'\x10\x00\tRecordSet\x00\nserverInfo\x03', (
+            b'\x00\x06cursor\x00?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00',
+            b'\x00\x0bcolumnNames\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x02\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x01b'
+            b'\x02\x00\x01c',
+            b'\x00\x0binitialData\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00?\xf0'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'@\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00@\x10\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x14\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x18'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00@\x1c\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@ \x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@"\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00',
+            b'\x00\x07version\x00?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00',
+            b'\x00\ntotalCount\x00@\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         ),
-        '\x00\x00\t\x00\x00\t'
+        b'\x00\x00\t\x00\x00\t'
     )
 
     def setUp(self):
@@ -1081,11 +1081,11 @@ class __amf__:
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             x,
-            '\x10\x00\x01B', (
-                '\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x04spam',
-                '\x00\x01b\x02\x00\x04eggs'
+            b'\x10\x00\x01B', (
+                b'\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x04spam',
+                b'\x00\x01b\x02\x00\x04eggs'
             ),
-            '\x00\x00\t'
+            b'\x00\x00\t'
         )
 
     def test_deep(self):
@@ -1112,12 +1112,12 @@ class __amf__:
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             x,
-            '\x10\x00\x01C', (
-                '\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x04spam',
-                '\x00\x01c\x02\x00\x03foo',
-                '\x00\x01b\x02\x00\x04eggs'
+            b'\x10\x00\x01C', (
+                b'\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x04spam',
+                b'\x00\x01c\x02\x00\x03foo',
+                b'\x00\x01b\x02\x00\x04eggs'
             ),
-            '\x00\x00\t'
+            b'\x00\x00\t'
         )
 
 
@@ -1135,13 +1135,13 @@ def setUp(self):
     def test_exception(self):
         try:
             raise Exception('foo bar')
-        except Exception, e:
+        except Exception as e:
             self.encoder.writeElement(e)
 
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buffer.getvalue(),
-            '\x03\x00\x07message\x02\x00\x07foo bar\x00\x04name\x02\x00\t'
-            'Exception\x00\x00\t'
+            b'\x03\x00\x07message\x02\x00\x07foo bar\x00\x04name\x02\x00\t'
+            b'Exception\x00\x00\t'
         )
 
     def test_user_defined(self):
@@ -1150,13 +1150,13 @@ class FooBar(Exception):
 
         try:
             raise FooBar('foo bar')
-        except Exception, e:
+        except Exception as e:
             self.encoder.writeElement(e)
 
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buffer.getvalue(),
-            '\x03\x00\x07message\x02\x00\x07foo bar\x00\x04name\x02\x00\x06Foo'
-            'Bar\x00\x00\t'
+            b'\x03\x00\x07message\x02\x00\x07foo bar\x00\x04name\x02\x00\x06Foo'
+            b'Bar\x00\x00\t'
         )
 
     def test_typed(self):
@@ -1167,13 +1167,13 @@ class XYZ(Exception):
 
         try:
             raise XYZ('blarg')
-        except Exception, e:
+        except Exception as e:
             self.encoder.writeElement(e)
 
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buffer.getvalue(),
-            '\x10\x00\x07foo.bar\x00\x07message\x02\x00\x05blarg\x00\x04name'
-            '\x02\x00\x03XYZ\x00\x00\t'
+            b'\x10\x00\x07foo.bar\x00\x07message\x02\x00\x05blarg\x00\x04name'
+            b'\x02\x00\x03XYZ\x00\x00\t'
         )
 
 
@@ -1182,21 +1182,21 @@ class AMF0ContextTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
     """
 
     bytes = (
-        '\x00\x03\x00\x02\x00\x0eServiceLicense\x00\x00\x00\x00O\x11\n\x0b'
-        '\x01-serviceConfigurationId\x06\t1234\x15licenseKey\x06Axxxxxxxxxxxxx'
-        'xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx\x01\x00\tSessionId\x00\x00\x00\x00\xb2\x11\n\x0b'
-        '\x01\x0bToken\x06\x82Iyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy'
-        'yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy'
-        'yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy\x01\x00\x01\x00\x0cR'
-        'egisterUser\x00\x02/3\x00\x00\x01k\n\x00\x00\x00\x07\x11\n#\x01\rform'
-        'at\x0bvalue\x069urn:TribalDDB:identity:email\x06!tester@trial.com\x11'
-        '\n#\x01\x02\ttype\x06\x0fpasswrd\x06Kurn:TribalDDB:authentication:pas'
-        'sword\x11\nS\x01\x19EmailAddress\x15PostalCode\x17DateOfBirth\x11Last'
-        'Name\x13FirstName\x06\x06\x06\x0b12345\n3\x12\x0bmonth\x07day\tyear'
-        '\x04\x04\x04\x0f\x04\x8fF\x06\rewrwer\x06\x07wer\x11\n3\x1fSectionTra'
-        'cking\tCsId\x11TrtmntId\x13LocalCsId\x04\x00\x04\x86\x94z\x04\x00\x11'
-        '\n\x13\x11Tracking\x07CTC\x06\x07555\x11\t\x03\x01\n#\x13UserOptIn'
-        '\x1dliveModeEnable\x05id\x02\x04\x884\x02\x00\x10wwwwwwwwwwwwwwww'
+        b'\x00\x03\x00\x02\x00\x0eServiceLicense\x00\x00\x00\x00O\x11\n\x0b'
+        b'\x01-serviceConfigurationId\x06\t1234\x15licenseKey\x06Axxxxxxxxxxxxx'
+        b'xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx\x01\x00\tSessionId\x00\x00\x00\x00\xb2\x11\n\x0b'
+        b'\x01\x0bToken\x06\x82Iyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy'
+        b'yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy'
+        b'yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy\x01\x00\x01\x00\x0cR'
+        b'egisterUser\x00\x02/3\x00\x00\x01k\n\x00\x00\x00\x07\x11\n#\x01\rform'
+        b'at\x0bvalue\x069urn:TribalDDB:identity:email\x06!tester@trial.com\x11'
+        b'\n#\x01\x02\ttype\x06\x0fpasswrd\x06Kurn:TribalDDB:authentication:pas'
+        b'sword\x11\nS\x01\x19EmailAddress\x15PostalCode\x17DateOfBirth\x11Last'
+        b'Name\x13FirstName\x06\x06\x06\x0b12345\n3\x12\x0bmonth\x07day\tyear'
+        b'\x04\x04\x04\x0f\x04\x8fF\x06\rewrwer\x06\x07wer\x11\n3\x1fSectionTra'
+        b'cking\tCsId\x11TrtmntId\x13LocalCsId\x04\x00\x04\x86\x94z\x04\x00\x11'
+        b'\n\x13\x11Tracking\x07CTC\x06\x07555\x11\t\x03\x01\n#\x13UserOptIn'
+        b'\x1dliveModeEnable\x05id\x02\x04\x884\x02\x00\x10wwwwwwwwwwwwwwww'
     )
 
     def test_decode(self):
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/test_amf3.py b/pyamf/tests/test_amf3.py
index 099ee5bd..245cc6ce 100644
--- a/pyamf/tests/test_amf3.py
+++ b/pyamf/tests/test_amf3.py
@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@
 
 import unittest
 import datetime
+from six.moves import xrange
 
 import pyamf
 from pyamf import amf3, util, xml, python
@@ -53,19 +54,19 @@ class TypesTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
     Tests the type mappings.
     """
     def test_types(self):
-        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_UNDEFINED, '\x00')
-        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_NULL, '\x01')
-        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_BOOL_FALSE, '\x02')
-        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_BOOL_TRUE, '\x03')
-        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_INTEGER, '\x04')
-        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_NUMBER, '\x05')
-        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_STRING, '\x06')
-        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_XML, '\x07')
-        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_DATE, '\x08')
-        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_ARRAY, '\x09')
-        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_OBJECT, '\x0a')
-        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_XMLSTRING, '\x0b')
-        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_BYTEARRAY, '\x0c')
+        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_UNDEFINED, b'\x00')
+        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_NULL, b'\x01')
+        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_BOOL_FALSE, b'\x02')
+        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_BOOL_TRUE, b'\x03')
+        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_INTEGER, b'\x04')
+        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_NUMBER, b'\x05')
+        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_STRING, b'\x06')
+        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_XML, b'\x07')
+        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_DATE, b'\x08')
+        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_ARRAY, b'\x09')
+        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_OBJECT, b'\x0a')
+        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_XMLSTRING, b'\x0b')
+        self.assertEqual(amf3.TYPE_BYTEARRAY, b'\x0c')
 
 
 class ContextTestCase(ClassCacheClearingTestCase):
@@ -79,13 +80,13 @@ def test_create(self):
 
     def test_add_string(self):
         x = amf3.Context()
-        y = 'abc'
+        y = b'abc'
 
         self.assertEqual(x.addString(y), 0)
         self.assertTrue(y in x.strings)
         self.assertEqual(len(x.strings), 1)
 
-        self.assertEqual(x.addString(''), -1)
+        self.assertEqual(x.addString(b''), -1)
 
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.addString, 132)
 
@@ -105,7 +106,7 @@ def test_clear(self):
         y = [1, 2, 3]
 
         x.addObject(y)
-        x.addString('spameggs')
+        x.addString(b'spameggs')
         x.clear()
 
         self.assertEqual(x.strings, [])
@@ -132,8 +133,8 @@ class Bar:
 
         x.addObject(y)
         x.addObject(z)
-        x.addString('abc')
-        x.addString('def')
+        x.addString(b'abc')
+        x.addString(b'def')
         x.addClass(a, Foo)
         x.addClass(b, Bar)
 
@@ -143,10 +144,10 @@ class Bar:
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.getObject, '')
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.getObject, 2.2323)
 
-        self.assertEqual(x.getString(0), 'abc')
-        self.assertEqual(x.getString(1), 'def')
+        self.assertEqual(x.getString(0), b'abc')
+        self.assertEqual(x.getString(1), b'def')
         self.assertEqual(x.getString(2), None)
-        self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.getString, '')
+        self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.getString, b'')
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.getString, 2.2323)
 
         self.assertEqual(x.getClass(Foo), a)
@@ -179,8 +180,8 @@ class Foo:
 
         ref1 = x.addObject(y)
         ref2 = x.addObject(z)
-        x.addString('abc')
-        x.addString('def')
+        x.addString(b'abc')
+        x.addString(b'def')
         x.addClass(a, Spam)
         x.addClass(b, Foo)
 
@@ -188,9 +189,9 @@ class Foo:
         self.assertEqual(x.getObjectReference(z), ref2)
         self.assertEqual(x.getObjectReference({}), -1)
 
-        self.assertEqual(x.getStringReference('abc'), 0)
-        self.assertEqual(x.getStringReference('def'), 1)
-        self.assertEqual(x.getStringReference('asdfas'), -1)
+        self.assertEqual(x.getStringReference(b'abc'), 0)
+        self.assertEqual(x.getStringReference(b'def'), 1)
+        self.assertEqual(x.getStringReference(b'asdfas'), -1)
 
         self.assertEqual(x.getClass(Spam), a)
         self.assertEqual(x.getClass(Foo), b)
@@ -258,9 +259,9 @@ def setUp(self):
     def test_list_references(self):
         y = [0, 1, 2, 3]
 
-        self.assertEncoded(y, '\x09\x09\x01\x04\x00\x04\x01\x04\x02\x04\x03')
-        self.assertEncoded(y, '\x09\x00', clear=False)
-        self.assertEncoded(y, '\x09\x00', clear=False)
+        self.assertEncoded(y, b'\x09\x09\x01\x04\x00\x04\x01\x04\x02\x04\x03')
+        self.assertEncoded(y, b'\x09\x00', clear=False)
+        self.assertEncoded(y, b'\x09\x00', clear=False)
 
     def test_list_proxy_references(self):
         self.encoder.use_proxies = True
@@ -268,46 +269,46 @@ def test_list_proxy_references(self):
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             y,
-            '\n\x07Cflex.messaging.io.ArrayCollection\t\t\x01\x04\x00\x04\x01'
-            '\x04\x02\x04\x03'
+            b'\n\x07Cflex.messaging.io.ArrayCollection\t\t\x01\x04\x00\x04\x01'
+            b'\x04\x02\x04\x03'
         )
-        self.assertEncoded(y, '\n\x00', clear=False)
-        self.assertEncoded(y, '\n\x00', clear=False)
+        self.assertEncoded(y, b'\n\x00', clear=False)
+        self.assertEncoded(y, b'\n\x00', clear=False)
 
     def test_dict(self):
-        self.assertEncoded({'spam': 'eggs'}, '\n\x0b\x01\tspam\x06\teggs\x01')
+        self.assertEncoded({'spam': 'eggs'}, b'\n\x0b\x01\tspam\x06\teggs\x01')
         self.assertEncoded(
             {'a': u'e', 'b': u'f', 'c': u'g', 'd': u'h'},
-            '\n\x0b\x01', (
-                '\x03c\x06\x03g',
-                '\x03b\x06\x03f',
-                '\x03a\x06\x03e',
-                '\x03d\x06\x03h'
+            b'\n\x0b\x01', (
+                b'\x03c\x06\x03g',
+                b'\x03b\x06\x03f',
+                b'\x03a\x06\x03e',
+                b'\x03d\x06\x03h'
             ),
-            '\x01'
+            b'\x01'
         )
-        self.assertEncoded({12: True, 42: "Testing"}, ('\n\x0b', (
-            '\x01\x0542\x06\x0fTesting',
-            '\x0512\x03\x01'
+        self.assertEncoded({12: True, 42: "Testing"}, (b'\n\x0b', (
+            b'\x01\x0512\x03'
+            b'\x0542\x06\x0fTesting\x01',
         )))
 
     def test_boolean(self):
-        self.assertEncoded(True, '\x03')
-        self.assertEncoded(False, '\x02')
+        self.assertEncoded(True, b'\x03')
+        self.assertEncoded(False, b'\x02')
 
     def test_mixed_array(self):
         x = pyamf.MixedArray()
         x.update({0: u'hello', 'spam': u'eggs'})
 
-        self.assertEncoded(x, '\t\x03\tspam\x06\teggs\x01\x06\x0bhello')
+        self.assertEncoded(x, b'\t\x03\tspam\x06\teggs\x01\x06\x0bhello')
 
         x = pyamf.MixedArray()
         x.update({0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 2, 3: 3, 4: 4, 5: 5, 'a': 'a'})
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             x,
-            '\x09\x0d\x03\x61\x06\x00\x01\x04\x00\x04\x01\x04\x02\x04\x03\x04'
-            '\x04\x04\x05'
+            b'\x09\x0d\x03\x61\x06\x00\x01\x04\x00\x04\x01\x04\x02\x04\x03\x04'
+            b'\x04\x04\x05'
         )
 
     def test_empty_key_string(self):
@@ -329,7 +330,7 @@ def x():
     def test_object(self):
         self.assertEncoded(
             {'a': u'spam', 'b': 5},
-            '\n\x0b\x01\x03a\x06\tspam\x03b\x04\x05\x01'
+            b'\n\x0b\x01\x03a\x06\tspam\x03b\x04\x05\x01'
         )
 
         pyamf.register_class(Spam, 'org.pyamf.spam')
@@ -339,31 +340,31 @@ def test_object(self):
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             obj,
-            '\n\x0b\x1dorg.pyamf.spam\x07baz\x06\x0bhello\x01'
+            b'\n\x0b\x1dorg.pyamf.spam\x07baz\x06\x0bhello\x01'
         )
 
     def test_date(self):
         x = datetime.datetime(2005, 3, 18, 1, 58, 31)
 
-        self.assertEncoded(x, '\x08\x01Bp+6!\x15\x80\x00')
-        self.assertEncoded(x, '\x08\x00', clear=False)
+        self.assertEncoded(x, b'\x08\x01Bp+6!\x15\x80\x00')
+        self.assertEncoded(x, b'\x08\x00', clear=False)
 
         self.assertRaises(pyamf.EncodeError, self.encode, datetime.time(22, 3))
 
     def test_byte_array(self):
-        self.assertEncoded(amf3.ByteArray('hello'), '\x0c\x0bhello')
+        self.assertEncoded(amf3.ByteArray(b'hello'), b'\x0c\x0bhello')
 
     def test_xmlstring(self):
         x = xml.fromstring('<a><b>hello world</b></a>')
-        self.assertEqual(self.encode(x), '\x0b\x33<a><b>hello world</b></a>')
-        self.assertEqual(self.encode(x), '\x0b\x00')
+        self.assertEqual(self.encode(x), b'\x0b\x33<a><b>hello world</b></a>')
+        self.assertEqual(self.encode(x), b'\x0b\x00')
 
     def test_anonymous(self):
         pyamf.register_class(Spam)
 
         x = Spam({'spam': 'eggs'})
 
-        self.assertEncoded(x, '\n\x0b\x01\x09spam\x06\x09eggs\x01')
+        self.assertEncoded(x, b'\n\x0b\x01\x09spam\x06\x09eggs\x01')
 
     def test_custom_type(self):
         def write_as_list(list_interface_obj, encoder):
@@ -381,7 +382,7 @@ def __iter__(self):
         pyamf.add_type(ListWrapper, write_as_list)
         x = ListWrapper()
 
-        self.assertEncoded(x, '\t\x07\x01\x04\x01\x04\x02\x04\x03')
+        self.assertEncoded(x, b'\t\x07\x01\x04\x01\x04\x02\x04\x03')
         self.assertTrue(x.ran)
 
     def test_old_style_classes(self):
@@ -394,8 +395,8 @@ class Person:
         u.family_name = 'Doe'
         u.given_name = 'Jane'
 
-        self.assertEncoded(u, '\n\x0b!spam.eggs.Person', (
-            '\x17family_name\x06\x07Doe', '\x15given_name\x06\tJane'), '\x01')
+        self.assertEncoded(u, b'\n\x0b!spam.eggs.Person', (
+            b'\x17family_name\x06\x07Doe', b'\x15given_name\x06\tJane'), b'\x01')
 
     def test_slots(self):
         class Person(object):
@@ -407,11 +408,11 @@ class Person(object):
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             u,
-            '\n\x0b\x01', (
-                '\x17family_name\x06\x07Doe',
-                '\x15given_name\x06\tJane'
+            b'\n\x0b\x01', (
+                b'\x17family_name\x06\x07Doe',
+                b'\x15given_name\x06\tJane'
             ),
-            '\x01'
+            b'\x01'
         )
 
     def test_slots_registered(self):
@@ -424,8 +425,8 @@ class Person(object):
         u.family_name = 'Doe'
         u.given_name = 'Jane'
 
-        self.assertEncoded(u, '\n\x0b!spam.eggs.Person', (
-            '\x17family_name\x06\x07Doe', '\x15given_name\x06\tJane'), '\x01')
+        self.assertEncoded(u, b'\n\x0b!spam.eggs.Person', (
+            b'\x17family_name\x06\x07Doe', b'\x15given_name\x06\tJane'), b'\x01')
 
     def test_elementtree_tag(self):
         class NotAnElement(object):
@@ -441,12 +442,12 @@ def __iter__(self):
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             foo,
-            '\n\x0b\x01', (
-                '\ttext\x06\x07bar',
-                '\ttail\x01',
-                '\x07tag\x06\x07foo'
+            b'\n\x0b\x01', (
+                b'\ttext\x06\x07bar',
+                b'\ttail\x01',
+                b'\x07tag\x06\x07foo'
             ),
-            '\x01'
+            b'\x01'
         )
 
     def test_funcs(self):
@@ -461,8 +462,8 @@ def test_29b_ints(self):
         Tests for ints that don't fit into 29bits. Reference: #519
         """
         ints = [
-            (amf3.MIN_29B_INT - 1, '\x05\xc1\xb0\x00\x00\x01\x00\x00\x00'),
-            (amf3.MAX_29B_INT + 1, '\x05A\xb0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+            (amf3.MIN_29B_INT - 1, b'\x05\xc1\xb0\x00\x00\x01\x00\x00\x00'),
+            (amf3.MAX_29B_INT + 1, b'\x05A\xb0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
         ]
 
         for i, val in ints:
@@ -473,23 +474,23 @@ def test_29b_ints(self):
 
     def test_number(self):
         vals = [
-            (0,        '\x04\x00'),
-            (0.2,      '\x05\x3f\xc9\x99\x99\x99\x99\x99\x9a'),
-            (1,        '\x04\x01'),
-            (127,      '\x04\x7f'),
-            (128,      '\x04\x81\x00'),
-            (0x3fff,   '\x04\xff\x7f'),
-            (0x4000,   '\x04\x81\x80\x00'),
-            (0x1FFFFF, '\x04\xff\xff\x7f'),
-            (0x200000, '\x04\x80\xc0\x80\x00'),
-            (0x3FFFFF, '\x04\x80\xff\xff\xff'),
-            (0x400000, '\x04\x81\x80\x80\x00'),
-            (-1,       '\x04\xff\xff\xff\xff'),
-            (42,       '\x04\x2a'),
-            (-123,     '\x04\xff\xff\xff\x85'),
-            (amf3.MIN_29B_INT, '\x04\xc0\x80\x80\x00'),
-            (amf3.MAX_29B_INT, '\x04\xbf\xff\xff\xff'),
-            (1.23456789, '\x05\x3f\xf3\xc0\xca\x42\x83\xde\x1b')
+            (0,        b'\x04\x00'),
+            (0.2,      b'\x05\x3f\xc9\x99\x99\x99\x99\x99\x9a'),
+            (1,        b'\x04\x01'),
+            (127,      b'\x04\x7f'),
+            (128,      b'\x04\x81\x00'),
+            (0x3fff,   b'\x04\xff\x7f'),
+            (0x4000,   b'\x04\x81\x80\x00'),
+            (0x1FFFFF, b'\x04\xff\xff\x7f'),
+            (0x200000, b'\x04\x80\xc0\x80\x00'),
+            (0x3FFFFF, b'\x04\x80\xff\xff\xff'),
+            (0x400000, b'\x04\x81\x80\x80\x00'),
+            (-1,       b'\x04\xff\xff\xff\xff'),
+            (42,       b'\x04\x2a'),
+            (-123,     b'\x04\xff\xff\xff\x85'),
+            (amf3.MIN_29B_INT, b'\x04\xc0\x80\x80\x00'),
+            (amf3.MAX_29B_INT, b'\x04\xbf\xff\xff\xff'),
+            (1.23456789, b'\x05\x3f\xf3\xc0\xca\x42\x83\xde\x1b')
         ]
 
         for i, val in vals:
@@ -516,7 +517,7 @@ def test_proxy(self):
         Test to ensure that only C{dict} objects will be proxied correctly
         """
         self.encoder.use_proxies = True
-        bytes = '\n\x07;flex.messaging.io.ObjectProxy\n\x0b\x01\x01'
+        bytes = b'\n\x07;flex.messaging.io.ObjectProxy\n\x0b\x01\x01'
 
         self.assertEncoded(pyamf.ASObject(), bytes)
         self.assertEncoded({}, bytes)
@@ -526,7 +527,7 @@ class Foo(object):
             pass
 
         self.encoder.use_proxies = True
-        bytes = '\n\x0b\x01\x01'
+        bytes = b'\n\x0b\x01\x01'
 
         self.assertEncoded(Foo(), bytes)
 
@@ -538,7 +539,7 @@ def test_timezone(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buf.getvalue(),
-            '\x08\x01Br>\xd8\x1f\xff\x80\x00'
+            b'\x08\x01Br>\xd8\x1f\xff\x80\x00'
         )
 
     def test_generator(self):
@@ -549,8 +550,8 @@ def foo():
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             foo(),
-            '\t\x07\x01\x04\x01\x04\x02\x04\x03\x06\x05'
-            '\xc3\xbf\x00'
+            b'\t\x07\x01\x04\x01\x04\x02\x04\x03\x06\x05'
+            b'\xc3\xbf\x00'
         )
 
     def test_iterate(self):
@@ -560,16 +561,16 @@ def test_iterate(self):
         self.encoder.send('hello')
         self.encoder.send(u'ƒøø')
 
-        self.assertEqual(self.encoder.next(), '\x06\x01')
-        self.assertEqual(self.encoder.next(), '\x06\x0bhello')
-        self.assertEqual(self.encoder.next(), '\x06\r\xc6\x92\xc3\xb8\xc3\xb8')
+        self.assertEqual(self.encoder.next(), b'\x06\x01')
+        self.assertEqual(self.encoder.next(), b'\x06\x0bhello')
+        self.assertEqual(self.encoder.next(), b'\x06\r\xc6\x92\xc3\xb8\xc3\xb8')
 
         self.assertRaises(StopIteration, self.encoder.next)
 
         self.assertIdentical(iter(self.encoder), self.encoder)
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buf.getvalue(),
-            '\x06\x01\x06\x0bhello\x06\r\xc6\x92\xc3\xb8\xc3\xb8'
+            b'\x06\x01\x06\x0bhello\x06\r\xc6\x92\xc3\xb8\xc3\xb8'
         )
 
     def test_subclassed_tuple(self):
@@ -585,7 +586,7 @@ class Foo(tuple):
 
         self.encoder.send(x)
 
-        self.assertEqual(self.encoder.next(), '\t\x05\x01\x04\x01\x04\x02')
+        self.assertEqual(self.encoder.next(), b'\t\x05\x01\x04\x01\x04\x02')
 
 
 class DecoderTestCase(ClassCacheClearingTestCase, DecoderMixIn):
@@ -600,75 +601,75 @@ def setUp(self):
         DecoderMixIn.setUp(self)
 
     def test_undefined(self):
-        self.assertDecoded(pyamf.Undefined, '\x00')
+        self.assertDecoded(pyamf.Undefined, b'\x00')
 
     def test_number(self):
-        self.assertDecoded(0, '\x04\x00')
-        self.assertDecoded(0.2, '\x05\x3f\xc9\x99\x99\x99\x99\x99\x9a')
-        self.assertDecoded(1, '\x04\x01')
-        self.assertDecoded(-1, '\x04\xff\xff\xff\xff')
-        self.assertDecoded(42, '\x04\x2a')
+        self.assertDecoded(0, b'\x04\x00')
+        self.assertDecoded(0.2, b'\x05\x3f\xc9\x99\x99\x99\x99\x99\x9a')
+        self.assertDecoded(1, b'\x04\x01')
+        self.assertDecoded(-1, b'\x04\xff\xff\xff\xff')
+        self.assertDecoded(42, b'\x04\x2a')
 
         # two ways to represent -123, as an int and as a float
-        self.assertDecoded(-123, '\x04\xff\xff\xff\x85')
-        self.assertDecoded(-123, '\x05\xc0\x5e\xc0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.assertDecoded(-123, b'\x04\xff\xff\xff\x85')
+        self.assertDecoded(-123, b'\x05\xc0\x5e\xc0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
 
-        self.assertDecoded(1.23456789, '\x05\x3f\xf3\xc0\xca\x42\x83\xde\x1b')
+        self.assertDecoded(1.23456789, b'\x05\x3f\xf3\xc0\xca\x42\x83\xde\x1b')
 
     def test_integer(self):
-        self.assertDecoded(0, '\x04\x00')
-        self.assertDecoded(0x35, '\x04\x35')
-        self.assertDecoded(0x7f, '\x04\x7f')
-        self.assertDecoded(0x80, '\x04\x81\x00')
-        self.assertDecoded(0xd4, '\x04\x81\x54')
-        self.assertDecoded(0x3fff, '\x04\xff\x7f')
-        self.assertDecoded(0x4000, '\x04\x81\x80\x00')
-        self.assertDecoded(0x1a53f, '\x04\x86\xca\x3f')
-        self.assertDecoded(0x1fffff, '\x04\xff\xff\x7f')
-        self.assertDecoded(0x200000, '\x04\x80\xc0\x80\x00')
-        self.assertDecoded(-0x01, '\x04\xff\xff\xff\xff')
-        self.assertDecoded(-0x2a, '\x04\xff\xff\xff\xd6')
-        self.assertDecoded(0xfffffff, '\x04\xbf\xff\xff\xff')
-        self.assertDecoded(-0x10000000, '\x04\xc0\x80\x80\x00')
+        self.assertDecoded(0, b'\x04\x00')
+        self.assertDecoded(0x35, b'\x04\x35')
+        self.assertDecoded(0x7f, b'\x04\x7f')
+        self.assertDecoded(0x80, b'\x04\x81\x00')
+        self.assertDecoded(0xd4, b'\x04\x81\x54')
+        self.assertDecoded(0x3fff, b'\x04\xff\x7f')
+        self.assertDecoded(0x4000, b'\x04\x81\x80\x00')
+        self.assertDecoded(0x1a53f, b'\x04\x86\xca\x3f')
+        self.assertDecoded(0x1fffff, b'\x04\xff\xff\x7f')
+        self.assertDecoded(0x200000, b'\x04\x80\xc0\x80\x00')
+        self.assertDecoded(-0x01, b'\x04\xff\xff\xff\xff')
+        self.assertDecoded(-0x2a, b'\x04\xff\xff\xff\xd6')
+        self.assertDecoded(0xfffffff, b'\x04\xbf\xff\xff\xff')
+        self.assertDecoded(-0x10000000, b'\x04\xc0\x80\x80\x00')
 
     def test_infinites(self):
-        x = self.decode('\x05\xff\xf8\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        x = self.decode(b'\x05\xff\xf8\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
         self.assertTrue(python.isNaN(x))
 
-        x = self.decode('\x05\xff\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        x = self.decode(b'\x05\xff\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
         self.assertTrue(python.isNegInf(x))
 
-        x = self.decode('\x05\x7f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        x = self.decode(b'\x05\x7f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
         self.assertTrue(python.isPosInf(x))
 
     def test_boolean(self):
-        self.assertDecoded(True, '\x03')
-        self.assertDecoded(False, '\x02')
+        self.assertDecoded(True, b'\x03')
+        self.assertDecoded(False, b'\x02')
 
     def test_null(self):
-        self.assertDecoded(None, '\x01')
+        self.assertDecoded(None, b'\x01')
 
     def test_string(self):
-        self.assertDecoded('', '\x06\x01')
-        self.assertDecoded('hello', '\x06\x0bhello')
+        self.assertDecoded('', b'\x06\x01')
+        self.assertDecoded('hello', b'\x06\x0bhello')
         self.assertDecoded(
             u'ღმერთსი შემვედრე, ნუთუ კვლა დამხსნას სოფლისა შრომასა, ცეცხლს',
-            '\x06\x82\x45\xe1\x83\xa6\xe1\x83\x9b\xe1\x83\x94\xe1\x83\xa0'
-            '\xe1\x83\x97\xe1\x83\xa1\xe1\x83\x98\x20\xe1\x83\xa8\xe1\x83'
-            '\x94\xe1\x83\x9b\xe1\x83\x95\xe1\x83\x94\xe1\x83\x93\xe1\x83'
-            '\xa0\xe1\x83\x94\x2c\x20\xe1\x83\x9c\xe1\x83\xa3\xe1\x83\x97'
-            '\xe1\x83\xa3\x20\xe1\x83\x99\xe1\x83\x95\xe1\x83\x9a\xe1\x83'
-            '\x90\x20\xe1\x83\x93\xe1\x83\x90\xe1\x83\x9b\xe1\x83\xae\xe1'
-            '\x83\xa1\xe1\x83\x9c\xe1\x83\x90\xe1\x83\xa1\x20\xe1\x83\xa1'
-            '\xe1\x83\x9d\xe1\x83\xa4\xe1\x83\x9a\xe1\x83\x98\xe1\x83\xa1'
-            '\xe1\x83\x90\x20\xe1\x83\xa8\xe1\x83\xa0\xe1\x83\x9d\xe1\x83'
-            '\x9b\xe1\x83\x90\xe1\x83\xa1\xe1\x83\x90\x2c\x20\xe1\x83\xaa'
-            '\xe1\x83\x94\xe1\x83\xaa\xe1\x83\xae\xe1\x83\x9a\xe1\x83\xa1')
+            b'\x06\x82\x45\xe1\x83\xa6\xe1\x83\x9b\xe1\x83\x94\xe1\x83\xa0'
+            b'\xe1\x83\x97\xe1\x83\xa1\xe1\x83\x98\x20\xe1\x83\xa8\xe1\x83'
+            b'\x94\xe1\x83\x9b\xe1\x83\x95\xe1\x83\x94\xe1\x83\x93\xe1\x83'
+            b'\xa0\xe1\x83\x94\x2c\x20\xe1\x83\x9c\xe1\x83\xa3\xe1\x83\x97'
+            b'\xe1\x83\xa3\x20\xe1\x83\x99\xe1\x83\x95\xe1\x83\x9a\xe1\x83'
+            b'\x90\x20\xe1\x83\x93\xe1\x83\x90\xe1\x83\x9b\xe1\x83\xae\xe1'
+            b'\x83\xa1\xe1\x83\x9c\xe1\x83\x90\xe1\x83\xa1\x20\xe1\x83\xa1'
+            b'\xe1\x83\x9d\xe1\x83\xa4\xe1\x83\x9a\xe1\x83\x98\xe1\x83\xa1'
+            b'\xe1\x83\x90\x20\xe1\x83\xa8\xe1\x83\xa0\xe1\x83\x9d\xe1\x83'
+            b'\x9b\xe1\x83\x90\xe1\x83\xa1\xe1\x83\x90\x2c\x20\xe1\x83\xaa'
+            b'\xe1\x83\x94\xe1\x83\xaa\xe1\x83\xae\xe1\x83\x9a\xe1\x83\xa1')
 
     def test_mixed_array(self):
         y = self.decode(
-            '\x09\x09\x03\x62\x06\x00\x03\x64\x06\x02\x03\x61'
-            '\x06\x04\x03\x63\x06\x06\x01\x04\x00\x04\x01\x04\x02\x04\x03'
+            b'\x09\x09\x03\x62\x06\x00\x03\x64\x06\x02\x03\x61'
+            b'\x06\x04\x03\x63\x06\x06\x01\x04\x00\x04\x01\x04\x02\x04\x03'
         )
 
         self.assertTrue(isinstance(y, pyamf.MixedArray))
@@ -684,26 +685,26 @@ def test_mixed_array(self):
         })
 
     def test_string_references(self):
-        self.assertDecoded('hello', '\x06\x0bhello')
-        self.assertDecoded('hello', '\x06\x00', clear=False)
-        self.assertDecoded('hello', '\x06\x00', clear=False)
+        self.assertDecoded('hello', b'\x06\x0bhello')
+        self.assertDecoded('hello', b'\x06\x00', clear=False)
+        self.assertDecoded('hello', b'\x06\x00', clear=False)
 
     def test_xmlstring(self):
-        self.buf.write('\x0b\x33<a><b>hello world</b></a>')
+        self.buf.write(b'\x0b\x33<a><b>hello world</b></a>')
         self.buf.seek(0, 0)
         x = self.decoder.readElement()
 
-        self.assertEqual(xml.tostring(x), '<a><b>hello world</b></a>')
+        self.assertEqual(xml.tostring(x), b'<a><b>hello world</b></a>')
 
         self.buf.truncate()
-        self.buf.write('\x0b\x00')
+        self.buf.write(b'\x0b\x00')
         self.buf.seek(0, 0)
         y = self.decoder.readElement()
 
         self.assertEqual(x, y)
 
     def test_xmlstring_references(self):
-        self.buf.write('\x0b\x33<a><b>hello world</b></a>\x0b\x00')
+        self.buf.write(b'\x0b\x33<a><b>hello world</b></a>\x0b\x00')
         self.buf.seek(0, 0)
         x = self.decoder.readElement()
         y = self.decoder.readElement()
@@ -711,46 +712,46 @@ def test_xmlstring_references(self):
         self.assertEqual(id(x), id(y))
 
     def test_list(self):
-        self.assertDecoded([], '\x09\x01\x01')
+        self.assertDecoded([], b'\x09\x01\x01')
         self.assertDecoded(
             [0, 1, 2, 3],
-            '\x09\x09\x01\x04\x00\x04\x01\x04\x02\x04\x03'
+            b'\x09\x09\x01\x04\x00\x04\x01\x04\x02\x04\x03'
         )
         self.assertDecoded(
             ["Hello", 2, 3, 4, 5],
-            '\x09\x0b\x01\x06\x0b\x48\x65\x6c\x6c\x6f\x04\x02\x04\x03\x04\x04'
-            '\x04\x05'
+            b'\x09\x0b\x01\x06\x0b\x48\x65\x6c\x6c\x6f\x04\x02\x04\x03\x04\x04'
+            b'\x04\x05'
         )
 
     def test_list_references(self):
         y = [0, 1, 2, 3]
         z = [0, 1, 2]
 
-        self.assertDecoded(y, '\x09\x09\x01\x04\x00\x04\x01\x04\x02\x04\x03')
-        self.assertDecoded(y, '\x09\x00', clear=False)
+        self.assertDecoded(y, b'\x09\x09\x01\x04\x00\x04\x01\x04\x02\x04\x03')
+        self.assertDecoded(y, b'\x09\x00', clear=False)
         self.assertDecoded(
             z,
-            '\x09\x07\x01\x04\x00\x04\x01\x04\x02',
+            b'\x09\x07\x01\x04\x00\x04\x01\x04\x02',
             clear=False
         )
-        self.assertDecoded(z, '\x09\x02', clear=False)
+        self.assertDecoded(z, b'\x09\x02', clear=False)
 
     def test_dict(self):
         self.assertDecoded(
             {'a': u'a', 'b': u'b', 'c': u'c', 'd': u'd'},
-            '\n\x0b\x01\x03a\x06\x00\x03c\x06\x02\x03b\x06\x04\x03d\x06\x06'
-            '\x01'
+            b'\n\x0b\x01\x03a\x06\x00\x03c\x06\x02\x03b\x06\x04\x03d\x06\x06'
+            b'\x01'
         )
 
         self.assertDecoded(
             {0: u'hello', 'foo': u'bar'},
-            '\x09\x03\x07\x66\x6f\x6f\x06\x07\x62\x61\x72\x01\x06\x0b\x68\x65'
-            '\x6c\x6c\x6f'
+            b'\x09\x03\x07\x66\x6f\x6f\x06\x07\x62\x61\x72\x01\x06\x0b\x68\x65'
+            b'\x6c\x6c\x6f'
         )
         self.assertDecoded(
             {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 2, 3: 3, 4: 4, 5: 5, 'a': 'a'},
-            '\x09\x0d\x03\x61\x06\x00\x01\x04\x00\x04\x01\x04\x02\x04\x03\x04'
-            '\x04\x04\x05'
+            b'\x09\x0d\x03\x61\x06\x00\x01\x04\x00\x04\x01\x04\x02\x04\x03\x04'
+            b'\x04\x04\x05'
         )
         self.assertDecoded(
             {
@@ -763,23 +764,23 @@ def test_dict(self):
                 2: 2,
                 3: 3
             },
-            '\x09\x09\x03\x62\x06\x00\x03\x64\x06\x02\x03\x61\x06\x04\x03\x63'
-            '\x06\x06\x01\x04\x00\x04\x01\x04\x02\x04\x03'
+            b'\x09\x09\x03\x62\x06\x00\x03\x64\x06\x02\x03\x61\x06\x04\x03\x63'
+            b'\x06\x06\x01\x04\x00\x04\x01\x04\x02\x04\x03'
         )
         self.assertDecoded(
             {'a': 1, 'b': 2},
-            '\x0a\x0b\x01\x03\x62\x04\x02\x03\x61\x04\x01\x01'
+            b'\x0a\x0b\x01\x03\x62\x04\x02\x03\x61\x04\x01\x01'
         )
         self.assertDecoded(
             {'baz': u'hello'},
-            '\x0a\x0b\x01\x07\x62\x61\x7a\x06\x0b\x68\x65\x6c\x6c\x6f\x01'
+            b'\x0a\x0b\x01\x07\x62\x61\x7a\x06\x0b\x68\x65\x6c\x6c\x6f\x01'
         )
         self.assertDecoded(
             {'baz': u'hello'},
-            '\x0a\x13\x01\x07\x62\x61\x7a\x06\x0b\x68\x65\x6c\x6c\x6f'
+            b'\x0a\x13\x01\x07\x62\x61\x7a\x06\x0b\x68\x65\x6c\x6c\x6f'
         )
 
-        bytes = '\x0a\x0b\x01\x07\x62\x61\x7a\x06\x0b\x68\x65\x6c\x6c\x6f\x01'
+        bytes = b'\x0a\x0b\x01\x07\x62\x61\x7a\x06\x0b\x68\x65\x6c\x6c\x6f\x01'
 
         self.buf.write(bytes)
         self.buf.seek(0)
@@ -790,7 +791,7 @@ def test_object(self):
 
         self.buf.truncate(0)
         self.buf.write(
-            '\x0a\x13\x1dorg.pyamf.spam\x07baz\x06\x0b\x68\x65\x6c\x6c\x6f')
+            b'\x0a\x13\x1dorg.pyamf.spam\x07baz\x06\x0b\x68\x65\x6c\x6c\x6f')
         self.buf.seek(0)
 
         obj = self.decoder.readElement()
@@ -801,21 +802,21 @@ def test_object(self):
         self.assertEqual(obj.baz, 'hello')
 
     def test_byte_array(self):
-        self.assertDecoded(amf3.ByteArray('hello'), '\x0c\x0bhello')
+        self.assertDecoded(amf3.ByteArray(b'hello'), b'\x0c\x0bhello')
 
     def test_date(self):
         import datetime
 
         self.assertDecoded(
             datetime.datetime(2005, 3, 18, 1, 58, 31),
-            '\x08\x01Bp+6!\x15\x80\x00'
+            b'\x08\x01Bp+6!\x15\x80\x00'
         )
 
     def test_not_strict(self):
         self.assertFalse(self.decoder.strict)
 
         # write a typed object to the stream
-        self.buf.write('\n\x0b\x13spam.eggs\x07foo\x06\x07bar\x01')
+        self.buf.write(b'\n\x0b\x13spam.eggs\x07foo\x06\x07bar\x01')
         self.buf.seek(0)
 
         self.assertFalse('spam.eggs' in pyamf.CLASS_CACHE)
@@ -832,7 +833,7 @@ def test_strict(self):
         self.assertTrue(self.decoder.strict)
 
         # write a typed object to the stream
-        self.buf.write('\n\x0b\x13spam.eggs\x07foo\x06\x07bar\x01')
+        self.buf.write(b'\n\x0b\x13spam.eggs\x07foo\x06\x07bar\x01')
         self.buf.seek(0)
 
         self.assertFalse('spam.eggs' in pyamf.CLASS_CACHE)
@@ -846,8 +847,8 @@ class Person(object):
         pyamf.register_class(Person, 'spam.eggs.Person')
 
         self.buf.write(
-            '\n+!spam.eggs.Person\x17family_name\x15given_name\x06'
-            '\x07Doe\x06\tJane\x02\x06\x06\x04\x06\x08\x01'
+            b'\n+!spam.eggs.Person\x17family_name\x15given_name\x06'
+            b'\x07Doe\x06\tJane\x02\x06\x06\x04\x06\x08\x01'
         )
         self.buf.seek(0)
 
@@ -885,7 +886,7 @@ def test_ioerror_buffer_position(self):
     def test_timezone(self):
         self.decoder.timezone_offset = datetime.timedelta(hours=-5)
 
-        self.buf.write('\x08\x01Br>\xc6\xf5w\x80\x00')
+        self.buf.write(b'\x08\x01Br>\xc6\xf5w\x80\x00')
         self.buf.seek(0)
 
         f = self.decoder.readElement()
@@ -895,9 +896,9 @@ def test_timezone(self):
     def test_iterate(self):
         self.assertRaises(StopIteration, self.decoder.next)
 
-        self.decoder.send('\x01')
-        self.decoder.send('\x03')
-        self.decoder.send('\x02')
+        self.decoder.send(b'\x01')
+        self.decoder.send(b'\x03')
+        self.decoder.send(b'\x02')
 
         self.assertEqual(self.decoder.next(), None)
         self.assertEqual(self.decoder.next(), True)
@@ -908,7 +909,7 @@ def test_iterate(self):
         self.assertIdentical(iter(self.decoder), self.decoder)
 
     def test_bad_type(self):
-        self.assertRaises(pyamf.DecodeError, self.decode, '\xff')
+        self.assertRaises(pyamf.DecodeError, self.decode, b'\xff')
 
     def test_kwargs(self):
         """
@@ -917,7 +918,7 @@ def test_kwargs(self):
         def f(**kwargs):
             self.assertEqual(kwargs, {'spam': 'eggs'})
 
-        kwargs = self.decode('\n\x0b\x01\tspam\x06\teggs\x01')
+        kwargs = self.decode(b'\n\x0b\x01\tspam\x06\teggs\x01')
 
         f(**kwargs)
 
@@ -938,11 +939,11 @@ def test_object_references(self):
         self.encoder.writeElement(obj)
         pos = self.buf.tell()
         self.encoder.writeElement(obj)
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue()[pos:], '\x0a\x00')
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue()[pos:], b'\x0a\x00')
         self.buf.truncate()
 
         self.encoder.writeElement(obj)
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), '\x0a\x00')
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), b'\x0a\x00')
         self.buf.truncate()
 
     def test_class_references(self):
@@ -959,14 +960,14 @@ def test_class_references(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buf.getvalue(),
-            '\n\x0b\x0fabc.xyz\tspam\x06\teggs\x01'
+            b'\n\x0b\x0fabc.xyz\tspam\x06\teggs\x01'
         )
 
         pos = self.buf.tell()
         self.encoder.writeElement(y)
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buf.getvalue()[pos:],
-            '\n\x01\x07foo\x06\x07bar\x01'
+            b'\n\x01\x07foo\x06\x07bar\x01'
         )
 
     def test_static(self):
@@ -976,7 +977,7 @@ def test_static(self):
 
         x = Spam({'spam': 'eggs'})
         self.encoder.writeElement(x)
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), '\n\x03\x0fabc.xyz')
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), b'\n\x03\x0fabc.xyz')
         pyamf.unregister_class(Spam)
         self.buf.truncate()
         self.encoder.context.clear()
@@ -989,7 +990,7 @@ def test_static(self):
         self.encoder.writeElement(x)
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buf.getvalue(),
-            '\n\x13\x0fabc.xyz\tspam\x06\teggs'
+            b'\n\x13\x0fabc.xyz\tspam\x06\teggs'
         )
 
     def test_dynamic(self):
@@ -1000,7 +1001,7 @@ def test_dynamic(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buf.getvalue(),
-            '\n\x0b\x0fabc.xyz\tspam\x06\teggs\x01'
+            b'\n\x0b\x0fabc.xyz\tspam\x06\teggs\x01'
         )
 
     def test_combined(self):
@@ -1015,7 +1016,7 @@ def test_combined(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             buf,
-            '\n\x1b\x0fabc.xyz\tspam\x06\x07foo\teggs\x06\x07bar\x01'
+            b'\n\x1b\x0fabc.xyz\tspam\x06\x07foo\teggs\x06\x07bar\x01'
         )
 
     def test_external(self):
@@ -1030,9 +1031,9 @@ def test_external(self):
 
         # an inline object with and inline class-def, encoding = 0x01, 1 attr
 
-        self.assertEqual(buf[:2], '\x0a\x07')
+        self.assertEqual(buf[:2], b'\x0a\x07')
         # class alias name
-        self.assertEqual(buf[2:10], '\x0fabc.xyz')
+        self.assertEqual(buf[2:10], b'\x0fabc.xyz')
 
         self.assertEqual(len(buf), 10)
 
@@ -1059,8 +1060,8 @@ class __amf__:
 
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buf.getvalue(),
-            '\t\x05\x01\n;\x01\tname\x05id\x17description\x06\x07foo\x04\x01'
-            '\x01\x01\n\x01\x06\x07bar\x04\x02\x01\x01'
+            b'\t\x05\x01\n;\x01\x17description\x05id\tname\x01\x04\x01\x06\x07f'
+            b'oo\x01\n\x01\x01\x04\x02\x06\x07bar\x01'
         )
 
 
@@ -1075,13 +1076,13 @@ def setUp(self):
         DecoderMixIn.setUp(self)
 
     def test_object_references(self):
-        self.buf.write('\x0a\x23\x01\x03a\x03b\x06\x09spam\x04\x05')
+        self.buf.write(b'\x0a\x23\x01\x03a\x03b\x06\x09spam\x04\x05')
         self.buf.seek(0, 0)
 
         obj1 = self.decoder.readElement()
 
         self.buf.truncate()
-        self.buf.write('\n\x00')
+        self.buf.write(b'\n\x00')
         self.buf.seek(0, 0)
 
         obj2 = self.decoder.readElement()
@@ -1091,7 +1092,7 @@ def test_object_references(self):
     def test_static(self):
         pyamf.register_class(Spam, 'abc.xyz')
 
-        self.buf.write('\x0a\x13\x0fabc.xyz\x09spam\x06\x09eggs')
+        self.buf.write(b'\x0a\x13\x0fabc.xyz\x09spam\x06\x09eggs')
         self.buf.seek(0, 0)
 
         obj = self.decoder.readElement()
@@ -1106,7 +1107,7 @@ def test_static(self):
     def test_dynamic(self):
         pyamf.register_class(Spam, 'abc.xyz')
 
-        self.buf.write('\x0a\x0b\x0fabc.xyz\x09spam\x06\x09eggs\x01')
+        self.buf.write(b'\x0a\x0b\x0fabc.xyz\x09spam\x06\x09eggs\x01')
         self.buf.seek(0, 0)
 
         obj = self.decoder.readElement()
@@ -1126,7 +1127,7 @@ def test_combined(self):
         pyamf.register_class(Spam, 'abc.xyz')
 
         self.buf.write(
-            '\x0a\x1b\x0fabc.xyz\x09spam\x06\x09eggs\x07baz\x06\x07nat\x01')
+            b'\x0a\x1b\x0fabc.xyz\x09spam\x06\x09eggs\x07baz\x06\x07nat\x01')
         self.buf.seek(0, 0)
 
         obj = self.decoder.readElement()
@@ -1142,7 +1143,7 @@ def test_external(self):
         alias = pyamf.register_class(Spam, 'abc.xyz')
         alias.external = True
 
-        self.buf.write('\x0a\x07\x0fabc.xyz')
+        self.buf.write(b'\x0a\x07\x0fabc.xyz')
         self.buf.seek(0)
         x = self.decoder.readElement()
 
@@ -1167,11 +1168,11 @@ def test_create(self):
 
     def test_boolean(self):
         self.x.writeBoolean(True)
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), '\x01')
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), b'\x01')
         self.buf.truncate()
 
         self.x.writeBoolean(False)
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), '\x00')
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), b'\x00')
 
     def test_byte(self):
         for y in xrange(10):
@@ -1179,59 +1180,59 @@ def test_byte(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buf.getvalue(),
-            '\x00\x01\x02\x03\x04\x05\x06\x07\x08\x09'
+            b'\x00\x01\x02\x03\x04\x05\x06\x07\x08\x09'
         )
 
     def test_double(self):
         self.x.writeDouble(0.0)
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), '\x00' * 8)
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), b'\x00' * 8)
         self.buf.truncate()
 
         self.x.writeDouble(1234.5678)
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), '@\x93JEm\\\xfa\xad')
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), b'@\x93JEm\\\xfa\xad')
 
     def test_float(self):
         self.x.writeFloat(0.0)
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), '\x00' * 4)
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), b'\x00' * 4)
         self.buf.truncate()
 
         self.x.writeFloat(1234.5678)
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), 'D\x9aR+')
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), b'D\x9aR+')
 
     def test_int(self):
         self.x.writeInt(0)
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), '\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), b'\x00\x00\x00\x00')
         self.buf.truncate()
 
         self.x.writeInt(-12345)
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), '\xff\xff\xcf\xc7')
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), b'\xff\xff\xcf\xc7')
         self.buf.truncate()
 
         self.x.writeInt(98)
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), '\x00\x00\x00b')
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), b'\x00\x00\x00b')
 
     def test_multi_byte(self):
         # TODO nick: test multiple charsets
         self.x.writeMultiByte('this is a test', 'utf-8')
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), u'this is a test')
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), 'this is a test'.encode('utf-8'))
         self.buf.truncate()
 
         self.x.writeMultiByte(u'ἔδωσαν', 'utf-8')
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buf.getvalue(),
-            '\xe1\xbc\x94\xce\xb4\xcf\x89\xcf\x83\xce\xb1\xce\xbd'
+            b'\xe1\xbc\x94\xce\xb4\xcf\x89\xcf\x83\xce\xb1\xce\xbd'
         )
 
     def test_object(self):
         obj = pyamf.MixedArray(spam='eggs')
 
         self.x.writeObject(obj)
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), '\t\x01\tspam\x06\teggs\x01')
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), b'\t\x01\tspam\x06\teggs\x01')
         self.buf.truncate()
 
         # check references
         self.x.writeObject(obj)
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), '\t\x00')
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), b'\t\x00')
         self.buf.truncate()
 
     def test_object_proxy(self):
@@ -1241,14 +1242,14 @@ def test_object_proxy(self):
         self.x.writeObject(obj)
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buf.getvalue(),
-            '\n\x07;flex.messaging.io.ObjectProxy\n\x0b\x01\tspam\x06\teggs'
-            '\x01'
+            b'\n\x07;flex.messaging.io.ObjectProxy\n\x0b\x01\tspam\x06\teggs'
+            b'\x01'
         )
         self.buf.truncate()
 
         # check references
         self.x.writeObject(obj)
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), '\n\x00')
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), b'\n\x00')
         self.buf.truncate()
 
     def test_object_proxy_mixed_array(self):
@@ -1258,14 +1259,14 @@ def test_object_proxy_mixed_array(self):
         self.x.writeObject(obj)
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buf.getvalue(),
-            '\n\x07;flex.messaging.io.ObjectProxy\n\x0b\x01\tspam\x06\teggs'
-            '\x01'
+            b'\n\x07;flex.messaging.io.ObjectProxy\n\x0b\x01\tspam\x06\teggs'
+            b'\x01'
         )
         self.buf.truncate()
 
         # check references
         self.x.writeObject(obj)
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), '\n\x00')
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), b'\n\x00')
         self.buf.truncate()
 
     def test_object_proxy_inside_list(self):
@@ -1275,21 +1276,21 @@ def test_object_proxy_inside_list(self):
         self.x.writeObject(obj)
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buf.getvalue(),
-            '\n\x07Cflex.messaging.io.ArrayCollection\t\x03\x01\n\x07;'
-            'flex.messaging.io.ObjectProxy\n\x0b\x01\tspam\x06\teggs\x01'
+            b'\n\x07Cflex.messaging.io.ArrayCollection\t\x03\x01\n\x07;'
+            b'flex.messaging.io.ObjectProxy\n\x0b\x01\tspam\x06\teggs\x01'
         )
 
     def test_short(self):
         self.x.writeShort(55)
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), '\x007')
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), b'\x007')
         self.buf.truncate()
 
         self.x.writeShort(-55)
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), '\xff\xc9')
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), b'\xff\xc9')
 
     def test_uint(self):
         self.x.writeUnsignedInt(55)
-        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), '\x00\x00\x007')
+        self.assertEqual(self.buf.getvalue(), b'\x00\x00\x007')
         self.buf.truncate()
 
         self.assertRaises(OverflowError, self.x.writeUnsignedInt, -55)
@@ -1299,7 +1300,7 @@ def test_utf(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buf.getvalue(),
-            '\x00\r\xe1\xbc\x94\xce\xb4\xcf\x89\xcf\x83\xce\xb1\xce\xbd'
+            b'\x00\r\xe1\xbc\x94\xce\xb4\xcf\x89\xcf\x83\xce\xb1\xce\xbd'
         )
 
     def test_utf_bytes(self):
@@ -1307,7 +1308,7 @@ def test_utf_bytes(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buf.getvalue(),
-            '\xe1\xbc\x94\xce\xb4\xcf\x89\xcf\x83\xce\xb1\xce\xbd'
+            b'\xe1\xbc\x94\xce\xb4\xcf\x89\xcf\x83\xce\xb1\xce\xbd'
         )
 
 
@@ -1333,18 +1334,18 @@ def _test(self, bytes, value, func, *params):
     def test_boolean(self):
         x = amf3.DataInput(self.decoder)
 
-        self.buf.write('\x01')
+        self.buf.write(b'\x01')
         self.buf.seek(-1, 2)
         self.assertEqual(x.readBoolean(), True)
 
-        self.buf.write('\x00')
+        self.buf.write(b'\x00')
         self.buf.seek(-1, 2)
         self.assertEqual(x.readBoolean(), False)
 
     def test_byte(self):
         x = amf3.DataInput(self.decoder)
 
-        self.buf.write('\x00\x01\x02\x03\x04\x05\x06\x07\x08\x09')
+        self.buf.write(b'\x00\x01\x02\x03\x04\x05\x06\x07\x08\x09')
         self.buf.seek(0)
 
         for y in xrange(10):
@@ -1353,34 +1354,34 @@ def test_byte(self):
     def test_double(self):
         x = amf3.DataInput(self.decoder)
 
-        self._test('\x00' * 8, 0.0, x.readDouble)
-        self._test('@\x93JEm\\\xfa\xad', 1234.5678, x.readDouble)
+        self._test(b'\x00' * 8, 0.0, x.readDouble)
+        self._test(b'@\x93JEm\\\xfa\xad', 1234.5678, x.readDouble)
 
     def test_float(self):
         x = amf3.DataInput(self.decoder)
 
-        self._test('\x00' * 4, 0.0, x.readFloat)
-        self._test('?\x00\x00\x00', 0.5, x.readFloat)
+        self._test(b'\x00' * 4, 0.0, x.readFloat)
+        self._test(b'?\x00\x00\x00', 0.5, x.readFloat)
 
     def test_int(self):
         x = amf3.DataInput(self.decoder)
 
-        self._test('\x00\x00\x00\x00', 0, x.readInt)
-        self._test('\xff\xff\xcf\xc7', -12345, x.readInt)
-        self._test('\x00\x00\x00b', 98, x.readInt)
+        self._test(b'\x00\x00\x00\x00', 0, x.readInt)
+        self._test(b'\xff\xff\xcf\xc7', -12345, x.readInt)
+        self._test(b'\x00\x00\x00b', 98, x.readInt)
 
     def test_multi_byte(self):
         # TODO nick: test multiple charsets
         x = amf3.DataInput(self.decoder)
 
         self._test(
-            'this is a test',
+            b'this is a test',
             'this is a test',
             x.readMultiByte,
             14, 'utf-8'
         )
         self._test(
-            '\xe1\xbc\x94\xce\xb4\xcf\x89\xcf\x83\xce\xb1\xce\xbd',
+            b'\xe1\xbc\x94\xce\xb4\xcf\x89\xcf\x83\xce\xb1\xce\xbd',
             u'ἔδωσαν',
             x.readMultiByte,
             13,
@@ -1391,30 +1392,30 @@ def test_object(self):
         x = amf3.DataInput(self.decoder)
 
         self._test(
-            '\t\x01\x09spam\x06\x09eggs\x01',
+            b'\t\x01\x09spam\x06\x09eggs\x01',
             {'spam': 'eggs'},
             x.readObject
         )
         # check references
-        self._test('\t\x00', {'spam': 'eggs'}, x.readObject)
+        self._test(b'\t\x00', {'spam': 'eggs'}, x.readObject)
 
     def test_short(self):
         x = amf3.DataInput(self.decoder)
 
-        self._test('\x007', 55, x.readShort)
-        self._test('\xff\xc9', -55, x.readShort)
+        self._test(b'\x007', 55, x.readShort)
+        self._test(b'\xff\xc9', -55, x.readShort)
 
     def test_uint(self):
         x = amf3.DataInput(self.decoder)
 
-        self._test('\x00\x00\x007', 55, x.readUnsignedInt)
+        self._test(b'\x00\x00\x007', 55, x.readUnsignedInt)
 
     def test_utf(self):
         x = amf3.DataInput(self.decoder)
 
-        self._test('\x00\x0bhello world', u'hello world', x.readUTF)
+        self._test(b'\x00\x0bhello world', u'hello world', x.readUTF)
         self._test(
-            '\x00\r\xe1\xbc\x94\xce\xb4\xcf\x89\xcf\x83\xce\xb1\xce\xbd',
+            b'\x00\r\xe1\xbc\x94\xce\xb4\xcf\x89\xcf\x83\xce\xb1\xce\xbd',
             u'ἔδωσαν',
             x.readUTF
         )
@@ -1423,7 +1424,7 @@ def test_utf_bytes(self):
         x = amf3.DataInput(self.decoder)
 
         self._test(
-            '\xe1\xbc\x94\xce\xb4\xcf\x89\xcf\x83\xce\xb1\xce\xbd',
+            b'\xe1\xbc\x94\xce\xb4\xcf\x89\xcf\x83\xce\xb1\xce\xbd',
             u'ἔδωσαν',
             x.readUTFBytes,
             13
@@ -1459,7 +1460,7 @@ class B(A):
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             x,
-            '\n+\x03B\x03a\x03b\x06\tspam\x06\teggs\x01'
+            b'\n+\x03B\x03a\x03b\x06\tspam\x06\teggs\x01'
         )
 
     def test_deep(self):
@@ -1488,7 +1489,7 @@ class C(B):
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             x,
-            '\n;\x03C\x03b\x03a\x03c\x06\teggs\x06\tspam\x06\x07foo\x01'
+            b'\n;\x03C\x03a\x03b\x03c\x06\tspam\x06\teggs\x06\x07foo\x01'
         )
 
 
@@ -1622,13 +1623,13 @@ def setUp(self):
     def test_exception(self):
         try:
             raise Exception('foo bar')
-        except Exception, e:
+        except Exception as e:
             self.encoder.writeElement(e)
 
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buf.getvalue(),
-            '\n\x0b\x01\x0fmessage\x06'
-            '\x0ffoo bar\tname\x06\x13Exception\x01'
+            b'\n\x0b\x01\x0fmessage\x06'
+            b'\x0ffoo bar\tname\x06\x13Exception\x01'
         )
 
     def test_user_defined(self):
@@ -1637,13 +1638,13 @@ class FooBar(Exception):
 
         try:
             raise FooBar('foo bar')
-        except Exception, e:
+        except Exception as e:
             self.encoder.writeElement(e)
 
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buf.getvalue(),
-            '\n\x0b\x01\x0fmessage\x06'
-            '\x0ffoo bar\tname\x06\rFooBar\x01'
+            b'\n\x0b\x01\x0fmessage\x06'
+            b'\x0ffoo bar\tname\x06\rFooBar\x01'
         )
 
     def test_typed(self):
@@ -1654,13 +1655,13 @@ class XYZ(Exception):
 
         try:
             raise XYZ('blarg')
-        except Exception, e:
+        except Exception as e:
             self.encoder.writeElement(e)
 
         self.assertEqual(
             self.buf.getvalue(),
-            '\n\x0b\x0ffoo.bar\x0f'
-            'message\x06\x0bblarg\tname\x06\x07XYZ\x01'
+            b'\n\x0b\x0ffoo.bar\x0f'
+            b'message\x06\x0bblarg\tname\x06\x07XYZ\x01'
         )
 
 
@@ -1694,7 +1695,7 @@ def test_context(self):
 
         b.writeObject(obj)
 
-        self.assertEqual(b.getvalue(), '\n\x0b\x01\x07foo\x06\x07bar\x01')
+        self.assertEqual(b.getvalue(), b'\n\x0b\x01\x07foo\x06\x07bar\x01')
 
     def test_read_context(self):
         """
@@ -1703,7 +1704,7 @@ def test_read_context(self):
         obj = {'foo': 'bar'}
         b = amf3.ByteArray()
 
-        b.stream.write('\n\x0b\x01\x07foo\x06\x07bar\x01\n\x00')
+        b.stream.write(b'\n\x0b\x01\x07foo\x06\x07bar\x01\n\x00')
         b.stream.seek(0)
 
         self.assertEqual(obj, b.readObject())
@@ -1723,12 +1724,12 @@ def test_compressed(self):
 
         self.assertFalse(ba.compressed)
 
-        z = zlib.compress('b' * 100)
+        z = zlib.compress(b'b' * 100)
         ba = amf3.ByteArray(z)
 
         self.assertTrue(ba.compressed)
 
-        z = zlib.compress('\x00' * 100)
+        z = zlib.compress(b'\x00' * 100)
         ba = amf3.ByteArray(z)
 
         self.assertTrue(ba.compressed)
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/test_basic.py b/pyamf/tests/test_basic.py
index 2735dbc9..886f8f03 100644
--- a/pyamf/tests/test_basic.py
+++ b/pyamf/tests/test_basic.py
@@ -8,7 +8,8 @@
 """
 
 import unittest
-import new
+from types import ModuleType
+from six import iteritems
 
 import pyamf
 from pyamf.tests.util import ClassCacheClearingTestCase, replace_dict, Spam
@@ -66,7 +67,7 @@ def test_iter(self):
 
         x = []
 
-        for k, v in bag.iteritems():
+        for k, v in iteritems(bag):
             x.append((k, v))
 
         self.assertEqual(x, [('spam', 'eggs')])
@@ -91,24 +92,24 @@ def tearDown(self):
     def test_get_decoder(self):
         self.assertRaises(ValueError, pyamf.get_decoder, 'spam')
 
-        decoder = pyamf.get_decoder(pyamf.AMF0, stream='123', strict=True)
-        self.assertEqual(decoder.stream.getvalue(), '123')
+        decoder = pyamf.get_decoder(pyamf.AMF0, stream=b'123', strict=True)
+        self.assertEqual(decoder.stream.getvalue(), b'123')
         self.assertTrue(decoder.strict)
 
-        decoder = pyamf.get_decoder(pyamf.AMF3, stream='456', strict=True)
-        self.assertEqual(decoder.stream.getvalue(), '456')
+        decoder = pyamf.get_decoder(pyamf.AMF3, stream=b'456', strict=True)
+        self.assertEqual(decoder.stream.getvalue(), b'456')
         self.assertTrue(decoder.strict)
 
     def test_get_encoder(self):
         pyamf.get_encoder(pyamf.AMF0)
         pyamf.get_encoder(pyamf.AMF3)
-        self.assertRaises(ValueError, pyamf.get_encoder, 'spam')
+        self.assertRaises(ValueError, pyamf.get_encoder, b'spam')
 
-        encoder = pyamf.get_encoder(pyamf.AMF0, stream='spam')
-        self.assertEqual(encoder.stream.getvalue(), 'spam')
+        encoder = pyamf.get_encoder(pyamf.AMF0, stream=b'spam')
+        self.assertEqual(encoder.stream.getvalue(), b'spam')
         self.assertFalse(encoder.strict)
 
-        encoder = pyamf.get_encoder(pyamf.AMF3, stream='eggs')
+        encoder = pyamf.get_encoder(pyamf.AMF3, stream=b'eggs')
         self.assertFalse(encoder.strict)
 
         encoder = pyamf.get_encoder(pyamf.AMF0, strict=True)
@@ -119,13 +120,13 @@ def test_get_encoder(self):
 
     def test_encode(self):
         self.assertEqual(
-            '\x06\x0fconnect\x05?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00',
+            b'\x06\x0fconnect\x05?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00',
             pyamf.encode(u'connect', 1.0).getvalue()
         )
 
     def test_decode(self):
         expected = [u'connect', 1.0]
-        bytes = '\x06\x0fconnect\x05?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+        bytes = b'\x06\x0fconnect\x05?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
 
         returned = [x for x in pyamf.decode(bytes)]
 
@@ -136,13 +137,13 @@ def test_default_encoding(self):
 
         x = pyamf.encode('foo').getvalue()
 
-        self.assertEqual(x, '\x06\x07foo')
+        self.assertEqual(x, b'\x06\x07foo')
 
         pyamf.DEFAULT_ENCODING = pyamf.AMF0
 
         x = pyamf.encode('foo').getvalue()
 
-        self.assertEqual(x, '\x02\x00\x03foo')
+        self.assertEqual(x, b'\x02\x00\x03foo')
 
 
 class UnregisterClassTestCase(ClassCacheClearingTestCase):
@@ -223,11 +224,11 @@ def class_loader(x):
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, pyamf.load_class, 'spam.eggs')
 
     def test_load_class_by_module(self):
-        pyamf.load_class('__builtin__.tuple')
+        pyamf.load_class('unittest.TestCase')
 
     def test_load_class_by_module_bad(self):
         with self.assertRaises(pyamf.UnknownClassAlias):
-            pyamf.load_class('__builtin__.tuple.')
+            pyamf.load_class('unittest.TestCase.')
 
 
 class TypeMapTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
@@ -237,13 +238,13 @@ def setUp(self):
         self.addCleanup(replace_dict, self.tm, pyamf.TYPE_MAP)
 
     def test_add_invalid(self):
-        mod = new.module('spam')
+        mod = ModuleType('spam')
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, pyamf.add_type, mod)
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, pyamf.add_type, {})
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, pyamf.add_type, 'spam')
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, pyamf.add_type, u'eggs')
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, pyamf.add_type, 1)
-        self.assertRaises(TypeError, pyamf.add_type, 234234L)
+        self.assertRaises(TypeError, pyamf.add_type, 234234)
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, pyamf.add_type, 34.23)
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, pyamf.add_type, None)
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, pyamf.add_type, object())
@@ -469,7 +470,7 @@ class ClassicType:
     def setUp(self):
         ClassCacheClearingTestCase.setUp(self)
 
-        self.module = new.module('foo')
+        self.module = ModuleType('foo')
 
         self.module.Classic = self.ClassicType
         self.module.New = self.NewType
@@ -562,7 +563,7 @@ def test_odd(self):
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, pyamf.register_package, object())
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, pyamf.register_package, 1)
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, pyamf.register_package, 1.2)
-        self.assertRaises(TypeError, pyamf.register_package, 23897492834L)
+        self.assertRaises(TypeError, pyamf.register_package, 23897492834)
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, pyamf.register_package, [])
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, pyamf.register_package, '')
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, pyamf.register_package, u'')
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/test_codec.py b/pyamf/tests/test_codec.py
index 35eac9ba..9d2ae52c 100644
--- a/pyamf/tests/test_codec.py
+++ b/pyamf/tests/test_codec.py
@@ -8,17 +8,11 @@
 """
 
 import unittest
+from six import binary_type, text_type
 
 import pyamf
 from pyamf import codec
 
-try:
-    unicode
-except NameError:
-    # py3k
-    unicode = str
-    str = bytes
-
 
 class TestObject(object):
     def __init__(self):
@@ -240,7 +234,7 @@ def test_string(self):
         s = 'foo'.encode('ascii')
         u = self.context.getStringForBytes(s)
 
-        self.assertTrue(type(u) is unicode)
+        self.assertTrue(isinstance(u, text_type))
         self.assertEqual(u, s.decode('ascii'))
 
         i = self.context.getStringForBytes(s)
@@ -254,11 +248,11 @@ def test_string(self):
         self.assertFalse(u is i)
 
     def test_bytes(self):
-        s = 'foo'.decode('ascii')
+        s = u'foo'
 
         b = self.context.getBytesForString(s)
 
-        self.assertTrue(type(b) is str)
+        self.assertTrue(type(b) is binary_type)
         self.assertEqual(b, s.encode('ascii'))
 
         i = self.context.getBytesForString(s)
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/test_flex.py b/pyamf/tests/test_flex.py
index 327363ac..422a9f1d 100644
--- a/pyamf/tests/test_flex.py
+++ b/pyamf/tests/test_flex.py
@@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ def test_encode_amf3(self):
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             x,
-            '\n\x07Cflex.messaging.io.ArrayCollection\t\x03\x01\x06\teggs'
+            b'\n\x07Cflex.messaging.io.ArrayCollection\t\x03\x01\x06\teggs'
         )
 
     def test_encode_amf0(self):
@@ -62,12 +62,12 @@ def test_encode_amf0(self):
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             x,
-            '\x11\n\x07Cflex.messaging.io.ArrayCollection\t\x03\x01\x06\teggs'
+            b'\x11\n\x07Cflex.messaging.io.ArrayCollection\t\x03\x01\x06\teggs'
         )
 
     def test_decode_amf3(self):
         stream = util.BufferedByteStream(
-            '\n\x07Cflex.messaging.io.ArrayCollection\t\x03\x01\x06\teggs'
+            b'\n\x07Cflex.messaging.io.ArrayCollection\t\x03\x01\x06\teggs'
         )
         decoder = amf3.Decoder(stream)
         x = decoder.readElement()
@@ -77,8 +77,8 @@ def test_decode_amf3(self):
 
     def test_decode_proxy(self):
         stream = util.BufferedByteStream(
-            '\x0a\x07;flex.messaging.io.ObjectProxy\x09\x01\x03a\x06\x09spam'
-            '\x03b\x04\x05\x01')
+            b'\x0a\x07;flex.messaging.io.ObjectProxy\x09\x01\x03a\x06\x09spam'
+            b'\x03b\x04\x05\x01')
         decoder = amf3.Decoder(stream)
         decoder.use_proxies = True
 
@@ -89,7 +89,7 @@ def test_decode_proxy(self):
 
     def test_decode_amf0(self):
         stream = util.BufferedByteStream(
-            '\x11\n\x07Cflex.messaging.io.ArrayCollection\t\x03\x01\x06\teggs')
+            b'\x11\n\x07Cflex.messaging.io.ArrayCollection\t\x03\x01\x06\teggs')
         decoder = amf0.Decoder(stream)
         x = decoder.readElement()
 
@@ -98,8 +98,8 @@ def test_decode_amf0(self):
 
     def test_source_attr(self):
         s = (
-            '\n\x07Cflex.messaging.io.ArrayCollection\n\x0b\x01\rsource'
-            '\t\x05\x01\x06\x07foo\x06\x07bar\x01'
+            b'\n\x07Cflex.messaging.io.ArrayCollection\n\x0b\x01\rsource'
+            b'\t\x05\x01\x06\x07foo\x06\x07bar\x01'
         )
 
         x = pyamf.decode(s, encoding=pyamf.AMF3).next()
@@ -200,14 +200,14 @@ def test_encode(self):
 
         self.assertEncoded(
             x,
-            '\n\x07;flex.messaging.io.ObjectProxy\n\x0b\x01',
-            ('\x03a\x06\tspam', '\x03b\x04\x05', '\x01')
+            b'\n\x07;flex.messaging.io.ObjectProxy\n\x0b\x01',
+            (b'\x03a\x06\tspam', b'\x03b\x04\x05', b'\x01')
         )
 
     def test_decode(self):
         stream = util.BufferedByteStream(
-            '\x0a\x07;flex.messaging.io.ObjectProxy\x09\x01\x03a\x06\x09spam'
-            '\x03b\x04\x05\x01')
+            b'\x0a\x07;flex.messaging.io.ObjectProxy\x09\x01\x03a\x06\x09spam'
+            b'\x03b\x04\x05\x01')
         decoder = amf3.Decoder(stream)
 
         x = decoder.readElement()
@@ -217,8 +217,8 @@ def test_decode(self):
 
     def test_decode_proxy(self):
         stream = util.BufferedByteStream(
-            '\x0a\x07;flex.messaging.io.ObjectProxy\x09\x01\x03a\x06\x09spam'
-            '\x03b\x04\x05\x01')
+            b'\x0a\x07;flex.messaging.io.ObjectProxy\x09\x01\x03a\x06\x09spam'
+            b'\x03b\x04\x05\x01')
         decoder = amf3.Decoder(stream)
         decoder.use_proxies = True
 
@@ -242,7 +242,9 @@ def test_repr(self):
 
         x = flex.ObjectProxy(u'ƒøø')
 
-        self.assertEqual(
-            repr(x),
-            "<flex.messaging.io.ObjectProxy u'\\u0192\\xf8\\xf8'>"
+        self.assertIn(
+            repr(x), (
+                "<flex.messaging.io.ObjectProxy u'\\u0192\\xf8\\xf8'>",
+                "<flex.messaging.io.ObjectProxy '\u0192\xf8\xf8'>"
+            )
         )
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/test_flex_messaging.py b/pyamf/tests/test_flex_messaging.py
index db0977b2..359ec007 100644
--- a/pyamf/tests/test_flex_messaging.py
+++ b/pyamf/tests/test_flex_messaging.py
@@ -40,10 +40,10 @@ def test_AcknowledgeMessage(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             pyamf.encode(m).getvalue(),
-            '\n\x81\x0bUflex.messaging.messages.AcknowledgeMessage\tbody'
-            '\x11clientId\x17destination\x0fheaders\x13messageId\x13timestamp'
-            '\x15timeToLive\x1bcorrelationId\x01\x01\x01\n\x0b\x01\x01\x01\x01'
-            '\x01\x06\t1234\x01'
+            b'\n\x81\x0bUflex.messaging.messages.AcknowledgeMessage\tbody\x11cl'
+            b'ientId\x1bcorrelationId\x17destination\x0fheaders\x13messageId'
+            b'\x15timeToLive\x13timestamp\x01\x01\x06\t1234\x01\n\x0b\x01\x01'
+            b'\x01\x01\x01\x01'
         )
 
     def test_CommandMessage(self):
@@ -51,10 +51,10 @@ def test_CommandMessage(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             pyamf.encode(m).getvalue(),
-            '\n\x81\x1bMflex.messaging.messages.CommandMessage\x1bcorrelationI'
-            'd\tbody\x11clientId\x17destination\x0fheaders\x13messageId\x13'
-            'timestamp\x15timeToLive\x13operation\x01\x01\x01\x01\n\x0b\x01'
-            '\x01\x01\x01\x01\x06\x0ffoo.bar\x01'
+            b'\n\x81\x1bMflex.messaging.messages.CommandMessage\tbody\x11client'
+            b'Id\x1bcorrelationId\x17destination\x0fheaders\x13messageId\x13ope'
+            b'ration\x15timeToLive\x13timestamp\x01\x01\x01\x01\n\x0b\x01\x01'
+            b'\x01\x06\x0ffoo.bar\x01\x01\x01'
         )
 
     def test_ErrorMessage(self):
@@ -62,11 +62,11 @@ def test_ErrorMessage(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             pyamf.encode(m).getvalue(),
-            '\n\x81[Iflex.messaging.messages.ErrorMessage\x1bcorrelationId\x15'
-            'timeToLive\x13timestamp\x13messageId\x0fheaders\x17destination'
-            '\x11clientId\tbody\x19extendedData\x13faultCode\x17faultDetail'
-            '\x17faultString\x13rootCause\x01\x01\x01\x01\n\x0b\x01\x01\x01'
-            '\x01\x01\n\x05\x01\x01\x01\x06\x15ValueError\n\x05\x01\x01'
+            b'\n\x81[Iflex.messaging.messages.ErrorMessage\tbody\x11clientId'
+            b'\x1bcorrelationId\x17destination\x19extendedData\x13faultCode\x17'
+            b'faultDetail\x17faultString\x0fheaders\x13messageId\x13rootCause'
+            b'\x15timeToLive\x13timestamp\x01\x01\x01\x01\n\x0b\x01\x01\x01\x01'
+            b'\x06\x15ValueError\n\x05\x01\x01\n\x05\x01\x01\x01\x01'
         )
 
     def test_RemotingMessage(self):
@@ -74,10 +74,10 @@ def test_RemotingMessage(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             pyamf.encode(m).getvalue(),
-            '\n\x81\x1bOflex.messaging.messages.RemotingMessage\x15timeToLive'
-            '\x13timestamp\x13messageId\x0fheaders\x17destination\x11clientId'
-            '\tbody\x13operation\rsource\x01\x01\x01\n\x0b\x01\x01\x01\x01\x01'
-            '\x01\x06\x0ffoo.bar\x01'
+            b'\n\x81\x1bOflex.messaging.messages.RemotingMessage\tbody\x11clien'
+            b'tId\x17destination\x0fheaders\x13messageId\x13operation\rsource'
+            b'\x15timeToLive\x13timestamp\x01\x01\x01\n\x0b\x01\x01\x01\x01\x06'
+            b'\x0ffoo.bar\x01\x01\x01'
         )
 
 
@@ -92,12 +92,11 @@ def setUp(self):
 
     def test_acknowledge(self):
         bytes = (
-            '\n\x07\x07DSK\xa8\x03\n\x0b\x01%DSMessagingVersion\x05?\xf0'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\tDSId\x06IEE0D161D-C11D-25CB-8DBE-3B77B'
-            '54B55D9\x01\x05Br3&m\x85\x10\x00\x0c!\xee\r\x16\x1d\xc1(&[\xc9'
-            '\x80RK\x9bE\xc6\xc4\x0c!\xee\r\x16\x1d\xc1=\x8e\xa3\xe0\x10\xef'
-            '\xad;\xe5\xc5j\x02\x0c!S\x84\x83\xdb\xa9\xc8\xcaM`\x952f\xdbQ'
-            '\xc9<\x00'
+            b'\n\x07\x07DSK\xa8\x03\n\x0b\x01\tDSId\x06IEE0D161D-C11D-25CB-8DBE'
+            b'-3B77B54B55D9%DSMessagingVersion\x05?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x01\x05Br3&m\x85\x10\x00\x0c!\xee\r\x16\x1d\xc1(&[\xc9\x80RK\x9b'
+            b'E\xc6\xc4\x0c!\xee\r\x16\x1d\xc1=\x8e\xa3\xe0\x10\xef\xad;\xe5'
+            b'\xc5j\x02\x0c!S\x84\x83\xdb\xa9\xc8\xcaM`\x952f\xdbQ\xc9<\x00'
         )
         self.buffer.write(bytes)
         self.buffer.seek(0)
@@ -138,9 +137,9 @@ def test_acknowledge(self):
 
     def test_command(self):
         bytes = (
-            '\n\x07\x07DSC\x88\x02\n\x0b\x01\tDSId\x06IEE0D161D-C11D-'
-            '25CB-8DBE-3B77B54B55D9\x01\x0c!\xc0\xdf\xb7|\xd6\xee$1s\x152f'
-            '\xe11\xa8f\x01\x06\x01\x01\x04\x02'
+            b'\n\x07\x07DSC\x88\x02\n\x0b\x01\tDSId\x06IEE0D161D-C11D-'
+            b'25CB-8DBE-3B77B54B55D9\x01\x0c!\xc0\xdf\xb7|\xd6\xee$1s\x152f'
+            b'\xe11\xa8f\x01\x06\x01\x01\x04\x02'
         )
 
         self.buffer.write(bytes)
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/test_gateway.py b/pyamf/tests/test_gateway.py
index cafb32c6..a62574e6 100644
--- a/pyamf/tests/test_gateway.py
+++ b/pyamf/tests/test_gateway.py
@@ -75,13 +75,14 @@ def test_encode(self):
         try:
             raise TypeError("Unknown type")
         except TypeError:
-            encoder.writeElement(amf0.build_fault(*sys.exc_info()))
+            exc_info = sys.exc_info()
+            encoder.writeElement(amf0.build_fault(*exc_info))
 
         buffer = encoder.stream
         buffer.seek(0, 0)
 
         fault = decoder.readElement()
-        old_fault = amf0.build_fault(*sys.exc_info())
+        old_fault = amf0.build_fault(*exc_info)
 
         self.assertEqual(fault.level, old_fault.level)
         self.assertEqual(fault.type, old_fault.type)
@@ -241,9 +242,9 @@ def __call__(*args, **kwargs):
 
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, gw.addService, 1)
 
-        import new
+        import types
 
-        temp = new.module('temp')
+        temp = types.ModuleType('temp')
         gw.addService(temp)
 
         self.assertTrue(temp in gw.services)
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/test_imports.py b/pyamf/tests/test_imports.py
index daa5a6e8..07a5dbcb 100644
--- a/pyamf/tests/test_imports.py
+++ b/pyamf/tests/test_imports.py
@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@
 import unittest
 import sys
 import os.path
+from six import iteritems
 
 from pyamf.util import imports
 
@@ -43,7 +44,7 @@ def tearDown(self):
 
     def _clearModules(self, *args):
         for mod in args:
-            for k, v in sys.modules.copy().iteritems():
+            for k, v in iteritems(sys.modules.copy()):
                 if k.startswith(mod) or k == 'pyamf.tests.%s' % (mod,):
                     del sys.modules[k]
 
@@ -95,8 +96,8 @@ def h(mod):
 
         try:
             import spam  # noqa
-        except Exception, e:
-            pass
+        except Exception as e_:
+            e = e_
         else:
             self.fail('expected exception')
 
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/test_remoting.py b/pyamf/tests/test_remoting.py
index d77978ab..bccb29f1 100644
--- a/pyamf/tests/test_remoting.py
+++ b/pyamf/tests/test_remoting.py
@@ -24,14 +24,14 @@ def test_client_version(self):
         """
         Tests the AMF client version.
         """
-        for x in ('\x00', '\x01', '\x03'):
+        for x in (b'\x00', b'\x01', b'\x03'):
             try:
-                remoting.decode('\x00' + x)
+                remoting.decode(b'\x00' + x)
             except IOError:
                 pass
 
     def test_null_msg(self):
-        msg = remoting.decode('\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        msg = remoting.decode(b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
 
         self.assertEqual(msg.amfVersion, 0)
         self.assertEqual(msg.headers, {})
@@ -46,8 +46,8 @@ def test_simple_header(self):
         Test header decoder.
         """
         msg = remoting.decode(
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x04name\x00\x00\x00\x00'
-            '\x05\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x04name\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x05\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
 
         self.assertEqual(msg.amfVersion, 0)
@@ -63,31 +63,31 @@ def test_simple_header(self):
 
     def test_required_header(self):
         msg = remoting.decode(
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x04name\x01\x00\x00\x00'
-            '\x05\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x04name\x01\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x05\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
 
         self.assertTrue(msg.headers.is_required('name'))
 
     def test_invalid_header_data_length(self):
         remoting.decode(
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x04name\x00\x00\x00\x00\x06\x0a'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x04name\x00\x00\x00\x00\x06\x0a'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
 
         self.failUnlessRaises(
             pyamf.DecodeError,
             remoting.decode,
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x04name\x00\x00\x00\x00\x06\x0a\x00\x00\x00'
-            '\x00\x00\x00',
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x04name\x00\x00\x00\x00\x06\x0a\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00',
             strict=True
         )
 
     def test_multiple_headers(self):
         msg = remoting.decode(
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x04name\x00\x00\x00\x00'
-            '\x05\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x04spam\x01\x00\x00\x00\x01\x05\x00'
-            '\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x04name\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x05\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x04spam\x01\x00\x00\x00\x01\x05\x00'
+            b'\x00'
         )
 
         self.assertEqual(msg.amfVersion, 0)
@@ -108,13 +108,13 @@ def test_simple_body(self):
         self.failUnlessRaises(
             IOError,
             remoting.decode,
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01'
         )
 
         msg = remoting.decode(
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x09test.test\x00'
-            '\x02/1\x00\x00\x00\x14\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x01\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00'
-            '\x00\x01\x61\x02\x00\x01\x61\x00\x00\x09'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x09test.test\x00'
+            b'\x02/1\x00\x00\x00\x14\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x01\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x01\x61\x02\x00\x01\x61\x00\x00\x09'
         )
 
         self.assertEqual(msg.amfVersion, 0)
@@ -136,47 +136,48 @@ def test_simple_body(self):
 
     def test_invalid_body_data_length(self):
         remoting.decode(
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x09test.test\x00\x02/1'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x13\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x01\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01'
-            '\x61\x02\x00\x01\x61\x00\x00\x09'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x09test.test\x00\x02/1'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x13\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x01\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01'
+            b'\x61\x02\x00\x01\x61\x00\x00\x09'
         )
 
         self.failUnlessRaises(
             pyamf.DecodeError,
             remoting.decode,
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x09test.test\x00\x02/1\x00\x00\x00'
-            '\x13\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x01\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x61\x02\x00'
-            '\x01\x61\x00\x00\x09',
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x09test.test\x00\x02/1\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x13\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x01\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x61\x02\x00'
+            b'\x01\x61\x00\x00\x09',
             strict=True
         )
 
     def test_message_order(self):
         request = util.BufferedByteStream()
         request.write(
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x08get_spam\x00\x02/2\x00'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x04echo\x00\x02/1\x00\x00'
-            '\x00\x00\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x01\x02\x00\x0bhello world'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x08get_spam\x00\x02/2\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x04echo\x00\x02/1\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x01\x02\x00\x0bhello world'
         )
         request.seek(0, 0)
 
         request_envelope = remoting.decode(request)
         it = iter(request_envelope)
 
-        self.assertEqual(it.next()[0], '/2')
-        self.assertEqual(it.next()[0], '/1')
+        self.assertEqual(next(it)[0], '/2')
+        self.assertEqual(next(it)[0], '/1')
 
-        self.assertRaises(StopIteration, it.next)
+        with self.assertRaises(StopIteration):
+            next(it)
 
     def test_multiple_request_header_references(self):
         msg = remoting.decode(
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x0b\x43\x72\x65\x64\x65\x6e\x74\x69\x61\x6c'
-            '\x73\x00\x00\x00\x00\x2c\x11\x0a\x0b\x01\x0d\x75\x73\x65\x72\x69'
-            '\x64\x06\x1f\x67\x65\x6e\x6f\x70\x72\x6f\x5c\x40\x67\x65\x72\x61'
-            '\x72\x64\x11\x70\x61\x73\x73\x77\x6f\x72\x64\x06\x09\x67\x67\x67'
-            '\x67\x01\x00\x01\x00\x0b\x63\x72\x65\x61\x74\x65\x47\x72\x6f\x75'
-            '\x70\x00\x02\x2f\x31\x00\x00\x00\x1c\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x01\x11\x0a'
-            '\x0b\x01\x09\x73\x74\x72\x41\x06\x09\x74\x65\x73\x74\x09\x73\x74'
-            '\x72\x42\x06\x02\x01'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x0b\x43\x72\x65\x64\x65\x6e\x74\x69\x61\x6c'
+            b'\x73\x00\x00\x00\x00\x2c\x11\x0a\x0b\x01\x0d\x75\x73\x65\x72\x69'
+            b'\x64\x06\x1f\x67\x65\x6e\x6f\x70\x72\x6f\x5c\x40\x67\x65\x72\x61'
+            b'\x72\x64\x11\x70\x61\x73\x73\x77\x6f\x72\x64\x06\x09\x67\x67\x67'
+            b'\x67\x01\x00\x01\x00\x0b\x63\x72\x65\x61\x74\x65\x47\x72\x6f\x75'
+            b'\x70\x00\x02\x2f\x31\x00\x00\x00\x1c\x0a\x00\x00\x00\x01\x11\x0a'
+            b'\x0b\x01\x09\x73\x74\x72\x41\x06\x09\x74\x65\x73\x74\x09\x73\x74'
+            b'\x72\x42\x06\x02\x01'
         )
 
         self.assertEqual(msg.amfVersion, 0)
@@ -202,8 +203,8 @@ def test_timezone(self):
         td = datetime.timedelta(hours=-5)
 
         msg = remoting.decode(
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x0b/1/onResult\x00\x04null\x00\x00'
-            '\x00\x00\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\x0bBr>\xcc\n~\x00\x00\x00\x00',
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x0b/1/onResult\x00\x04null\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\x0bBr>\xcc\n~\x00\x00\x00\x00',
             timezone_offset=td)
 
         self.assertEqual(
@@ -220,12 +221,12 @@ def test_basic(self):
         """
         """
         msg = remoting.Envelope(pyamf.AMF0)
-        self.assertEqual(remoting.encode(msg).getvalue(), '\x00' * 6)
+        self.assertEqual(remoting.encode(msg).getvalue(), b'\x00' * 6)
 
         msg = remoting.Envelope(pyamf.AMF3)
         self.assertEqual(
             remoting.encode(msg).getvalue(),
-            '\x00\x03' + '\x00' * 4
+            b'\x00\x03' + b'\x00' * 4
         )
 
     def test_header(self):
@@ -237,8 +238,8 @@ def test_header(self):
         msg.headers['spam'] = (False, 'eggs')
         self.assertEqual(
             remoting.encode(msg).getvalue(),
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x04spam\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00\x00\x00'
-            '\x02\x01\x00\x02\x00\x04eggs\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x04spam\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x02\x01\x00\x02\x00\x04eggs\x00\x00'
         )
 
         msg = remoting.Envelope(pyamf.AMF0)
@@ -246,9 +247,9 @@ def test_header(self):
         msg.headers['spam'] = (True, ['a', 'b', 'c'])
         self.assertEqual(
             remoting.encode(msg).getvalue(),
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x04spam\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00\x00\x00'
-            '\x02\x01\x01\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x02\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x01b\x02\x00'
-            '\x01c\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x04spam\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x02\x01\x01\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x02\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x01b\x02\x00'
+            b'\x01c\x00\x00'
         )
 
     def test_request(self):
@@ -271,8 +272,8 @@ def test_request(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             remoting.encode(msg).getvalue(),
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\ttest.test\x00\x02/1\x00\x00\x00'
-            '\x00\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\x02\x00\x05hello'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\ttest.test\x00\x02/1\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\x02\x00\x05hello'
         )
 
     def test_response(self):
@@ -295,10 +296,10 @@ def test_response(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             remoting.encode(msg).getvalue(),
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00'
-            '\x00\x01\x00\x0b/1/onResult\x00\x04null\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00\x00'
-            '\x00\x03\x00?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x00\x00\x00\x00'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x01\x00\x0b/1/onResult\x00\x04null\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x03\x00?\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00@\x08\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
 
     def test_message_order(self):
@@ -310,11 +311,12 @@ def test_message_order(self):
 
         it = iter(msg)
 
-        self.assertEqual(it.next()[0], '/3')
-        self.assertEqual(it.next()[0], '/1')
-        self.assertEqual(it.next()[0], '/2')
+        self.assertEqual(next(it)[0], '/3')
+        self.assertEqual(next(it)[0], '/1')
+        self.assertEqual(next(it)[0], '/2')
 
-        self.assertRaises(StopIteration, it.next)
+        with self.assertRaises(StopIteration):
+            next(it)
 
     def test_stream_pos(self):
         """
@@ -343,9 +345,9 @@ def test_timezone(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             stream,
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x0b/1/onResult'
-            '\x00\x04null\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\x0bBr>\xdd5\x06'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x0b/1/onResult'
+            b'\x00\x04null\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\x0bBr>\xdd5\x06'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
 
 
@@ -357,8 +359,8 @@ def test_request(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             remoting.encode(msg, strict=True).getvalue(),
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\ttest.test\x00\x02/1\x00\x00\x00'
-            '\r\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\x02\x00\x05hello'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\ttest.test\x00\x02/1\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\r\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\x02\x00\x05hello'
         )
 
     def test_response(self):
@@ -368,8 +370,8 @@ def test_response(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             remoting.encode(msg, strict=True).getvalue(),
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x0b/1/onResult\x00\x04null\x00\x00'
-            '\x00\x0c\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\x02\x00\x04spam'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x0b/1/onResult\x00\x04null\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x0c\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\x02\x00\x04spam'
         )
 
 
@@ -399,11 +401,11 @@ def test_body_references(self):
         s = remoting.encode(msg).getvalue()
         self.assertEqual(
             s,
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x03foo\x00\x02/1'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x02\x00\x01'
-            'a\x02\x00\x01b\x02\x00\x01c\x00\x03bar\x00\x02/2\x00\x00\x00\x00'
-            '\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x02\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x01b'
-            '\x02\x00\x01c'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x03foo\x00\x02/1'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x02\x00\x01'
+            b'a\x02\x00\x01b\x02\x00\x01c\x00\x03bar\x00\x02/2\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\n\x00\x00\x00\x03\x02\x00\x01a\x02\x00\x01b'
+            b'\x02\x00\x01c'
         )
 
 
@@ -413,15 +415,15 @@ def test_encode_bytearray(self):
 
         stream = ByteArray()
 
-        stream.write('12345678')
+        stream.write(b'12345678')
 
         msg = remoting.Envelope(pyamf.AMF0)
         msg['/1'] = remoting.Response([stream])
 
         self.assertEqual(
             remoting.encode(msg).getvalue(),
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x0b/1/onResult\x00\x04null'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\x11\x0c\x1112345678'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x0b/1/onResult\x00\x04null'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\n\x00\x00\x00\x01\x11\x0c\x1112345678'
         )
 
 
@@ -429,17 +431,22 @@ class ReprTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
     def test_response(self):
         r = remoting.Response(u'€±')
 
-        self.assertEqual(
-            repr(r),
-            "<Response status=/onResult>u'\\u20ac\\xb1'</Response>"
+        self.assertIn(
+            repr(r), (
+                "<Response status=/onResult>u'\\u20ac\\xb1'</Response>",
+                "<Response status=/onResult>'\u20ac\xb1'</Response>",
+            )
         )
 
     def test_request(self):
         r = remoting.Request(u'€±', [u'å∫ç'])
 
-        self.assertEqual(
-            repr(r),
-            "<Request target=u'\\u20ac\\xb1'>[u'\\xe5\\u222b\\xe7']</Request>"
+        self.assertIn(
+            repr(r), (
+                "<Request target=u'\\u20ac\\xb1'>[u'\\xe5\\u222b\\xe7']</Reques"
+                "t>",
+                "<Request target='\u20ac\xb1'>['\xe5\u222b\xe7']</Request>",
+            )
         )
 
     def test_base_fault(self):
@@ -450,8 +457,11 @@ def test_base_fault(self):
             details=u'å'
         )
 
-        self.assertEqual(
-            repr(r),
-            "BaseFault level=None code=u'\\xe5' type=u'\\xe5' description="
-            "u'\\xe5'\nTraceback:\nu'\\xe5'"
+        self.assertIn(
+            repr(r), (
+                "BaseFault level=None code=u'\\xe5' type=u'\\xe5' description="
+                "u'\\xe5'\nTraceback:\nu'\\xe5'",
+                "BaseFault level=None code='\xe5' type='\xe5' description="
+                "'\xe5'\nTraceback:\n'\xe5'",
+            )
         )
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/test_sol.py b/pyamf/tests/test_sol.py
index fae4bbea..b33ae091 100644
--- a/pyamf/tests/test_sol.py
+++ b/pyamf/tests/test_sol.py
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@
 import warnings
 import tempfile
 
-from StringIO import StringIO
+from six import BytesIO
 
 import pyamf
 from pyamf import sol
@@ -26,8 +26,8 @@
 class DecoderTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
     def test_header(self):
         bytes = (
-            '\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00\x15TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x05hello'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00\x15TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x05hello'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
 
         try:
@@ -37,22 +37,22 @@ def test_header(self):
 
     def test_invalid_header(self):
         bytes = (
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x15TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x05hello'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x15TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x05hello'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
         self.assertRaises(pyamf.DecodeError, sol.decode, bytes)
 
     def test_invalid_header_length(self):
         bytes = (
-            '\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00\x05TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x05hello'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00\x05TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x05hello'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
         self.assertRaises(pyamf.DecodeError, sol.decode, bytes)
 
     def test_strict_header_length(self):
         bytes = (
-            '\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00\x00TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x05hello'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00\x00TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x05hello'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
 
         try:
@@ -62,37 +62,37 @@ def test_strict_header_length(self):
 
     def test_invalid_signature(self):
         bytes = (
-            '\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00\x15ABCD\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x05hello'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00\x15ABCD\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x05hello'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
         self.assertRaises(pyamf.DecodeError, sol.decode, bytes)
 
     def test_invalid_header_name_length(self):
         bytes = (
-            '\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00\x15TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01hello'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00\x15TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01hello'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
         self.assertRaises(pyamf.DecodeError, sol.decode, bytes)
 
     def test_invalid_header_padding(self):
         bytes = (
-            '\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00\x15TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x05hello'
-            '\x00\x00\x01\x00'
+            b'\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00\x15TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x05hello'
+            b'\x00\x00\x01\x00'
         )
         self.assertRaises(pyamf.DecodeError, sol.decode, bytes)
 
     def test_unknown_encoding(self):
         bytes = (
-            '\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00\x15TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x05hello'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x01'
+            b'\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00\x15TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x05hello'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x01'
         )
         self.assertRaises(ValueError, sol.decode, bytes)
 
     def test_amf3(self):
         bytes = (
-            '\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00aTCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x08'
-            'EchoTest\x00\x00\x00\x03\x0fhttpUri\x06=http://localhost:8000'
-            '/gateway/\x00\x0frtmpUri\x06+rtmp://localhost/echo\x00'
+            b'\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00aTCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x08'
+            b'EchoTest\x00\x00\x00\x03\x0fhttpUri\x06=http://localhost:8000'
+            b'/gateway/\x00\x0frtmpUri\x06+rtmp://localhost/echo\x00'
         )
 
         self.assertEqual(
@@ -112,8 +112,8 @@ def test_encode_header(self):
 
         self.assertEqual(
             stream.getvalue(),
-            '\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00\x15TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x05hello'
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+            b'\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00\x15TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x05hello'
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00'
         )
 
     def test_multiple_values(self):
@@ -125,10 +125,10 @@ def test_multiple_values(self):
 
     def test_amf3(self):
         bytes = (
-            '\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00aTCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x08'
-            'EchoTest\x00\x00\x00\x03', (
-                '\x0fhttpUri\x06=http://localhost:8000/gateway/\x00',
-                '\x0frtmpUri\x06+rtmp://localhost/echo\x00'
+            b'\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x00aTCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x08'
+            b'EchoTest\x00\x00\x00\x03', (
+                b'\x0fhttpUri\x06=http://localhost:8000/gateway/\x00',
+                b'\x0frtmpUri\x06+rtmp://localhost/echo\x00'
             )
         )
 
@@ -145,17 +145,17 @@ def test_amf3(self):
 
 class HelperTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
     contents = (
-        '\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x002TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x05hello'
-        '\x00\x00\x00\x00', (
-            '\x00\x04name\x02\x00\x05value\x00',
-            '\x00\x04spam\x02\x00\x04eggs\x00'
+        b'\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x002TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x05hello'
+        b'\x00\x00\x00\x00', (
+            b'\x00\x04name\x02\x00\x05value\x00',
+            b'\x00\x04spam\x02\x00\x04eggs\x00'
         )
     )
 
     contents_str = (
-        '\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x002TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
-        '\x05hello\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x04name\x02\x00\x05value\x00\x00'
-        '\x04spam\x02\x00\x04eggs\x00')
+        b'\x00\xbf\x00\x00\x002TCSO\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
+        b'\x05hello\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x04name\x02\x00\x05value\x00\x00'
+        b'\x04spam\x02\x00\x04eggs\x00')
 
     def setUp(self):
         try:
@@ -241,7 +241,7 @@ def test_save(self):
         s = sol.SOL('hello')
         s.update({'name': 'value', 'spam': 'eggs'})
 
-        x = StringIO()
+        x = BytesIO()
 
         s.save(x)
 
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/test_util.py b/pyamf/tests/test_util.py
index a13220a0..53d1f6f6 100644
--- a/pyamf/tests/test_util.py
+++ b/pyamf/tests/test_util.py
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@
 import unittest
 
 from datetime import datetime
-from StringIO import StringIO
+from six import BytesIO
 
 import pyamf
 from pyamf import util
@@ -58,37 +58,37 @@ def test_preserved_microseconds(self):
         self.assertEqual(util.get_datetime(ts), dt)
 
 
-class StringIOTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
+class BytesIOTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
 
     def test_create(self):
         sp = util.BufferedByteStream()
 
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 0)
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), '')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 0)
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), '')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'')
 
         sp = util.BufferedByteStream(None)
 
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 0)
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), '')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 0)
 
-        sp = util.BufferedByteStream('')
+        sp = util.BufferedByteStream(b'')
 
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 0)
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), '')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 0)
 
-        sp = util.BufferedByteStream('spam')
+        sp = util.BufferedByteStream(b'spam')
 
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 0)
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'spam')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'spam')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 4)
 
-        sp = util.BufferedByteStream(StringIO('this is a test'))
+        sp = util.BufferedByteStream(BytesIO(b'this is a test'))
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 0)
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'this is a test')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'this is a test')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 14)
 
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, util.BufferedByteStream, self)
@@ -96,145 +96,145 @@ def test_create(self):
     def test_getvalue(self):
         sp = util.BufferedByteStream()
 
-        sp.write('asdfasdf')
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'asdfasdf')
-        sp.write('spam')
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'asdfasdfspam')
+        sp.write(b'asdfasdf')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'asdfasdf')
+        sp.write(b'spam')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'asdfasdfspam')
 
     def test_read(self):
-        sp = util.BufferedByteStream('this is a test')
+        sp = util.BufferedByteStream(b'this is a test')
 
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 14)
-        self.assertEqual(sp.read(1), 't')
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'this is a test')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.read(1), b't')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'this is a test')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 14)
-        self.assertEqual(sp.read(10), 'his is a t')
-        self.assertEqual(sp.read(), 'est')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.read(10), b'his is a t')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.read(), b'est')
 
     def test_seek(self):
-        sp = util.BufferedByteStream('abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
+        sp = util.BufferedByteStream(b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
 
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 0)
 
         # Relative to the beginning of the stream
         sp.seek(0, 0)
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 0)
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
-        self.assertEqual(sp.read(1), 'a')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.read(1), b'a')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 26)
 
         sp.seek(10, 0)
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 10)
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
-        self.assertEqual(sp.read(1), 'k')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.read(1), b'k')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 26)
 
         sp.seek(-5, 1)
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 6)
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
-        self.assertEqual(sp.read(1), 'g')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.read(1), b'g')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 26)
 
         sp.seek(-3, 2)
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 23)
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
-        self.assertEqual(sp.read(1), 'x')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.read(1), b'x')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 26)
 
     def test_tell(self):
-        sp = util.BufferedByteStream('abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
+        sp = util.BufferedByteStream(b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
 
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 26)
 
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 0)
         sp.read(1)
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 1)
 
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 26)
 
         sp.read(5)
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 6)
 
     def test_truncate(self):
-        sp = util.BufferedByteStream('abcdef')
+        sp = util.BufferedByteStream(b'abcdef')
 
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'abcdef')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'abcdef')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 6)
 
         sp.truncate()
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), '')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 0)
 
-        sp = util.BufferedByteStream('hello')
+        sp = util.BufferedByteStream(b'hello')
 
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'hello')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'hello')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 5)
 
         sp.truncate(3)
 
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'hel')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'hel')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 3)
 
     def test_write(self):
         sp = util.BufferedByteStream()
 
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), '')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 0)
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 0)
 
-        sp.write('hello')
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'hello')
+        sp.write(b'hello')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'hello')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 5)
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 5)
 
-        sp = util.BufferedByteStream('xyz')
+        sp = util.BufferedByteStream(b'xyz')
 
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'xyz')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'xyz')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 3)
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 0)
 
-        sp.write('abc')
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'abc')
+        sp.write(b'abc')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'abc')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 3)
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 3)
 
     def test_len(self):
         sp = util.BufferedByteStream()
 
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), '')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'')
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 0)
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 0)
 
-        sp.write('xyz')
+        sp.write(b'xyz')
 
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 3)
 
-        sp = util.BufferedByteStream('foo')
+        sp = util.BufferedByteStream(b'foo')
 
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 3)
 
         sp.seek(0, 2)
-        sp.write('xyz')
+        sp.write(b'xyz')
 
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 6)
 
     def test_consume(self):
         sp = util.BufferedByteStream()
 
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), '')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'')
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 0)
 
         sp.consume()
 
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), '')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'')
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 0)
 
-        sp = util.BufferedByteStream('foobar')
+        sp = util.BufferedByteStream(b'foobar')
 
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'foobar')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'foobar')
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 0)
 
         sp.seek(3)
@@ -242,11 +242,11 @@ def test_consume(self):
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 3)
         sp.consume()
 
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), 'bar')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'bar')
         self.assertEqual(sp.tell(), 0)
 
         # from ticket 451 - http://pyamf.org/ticket/451
-        sp = util.BufferedByteStream('abcdef')
+        sp = util.BufferedByteStream(b'abcdef')
         # move the stream pos to the end
         sp.read()
 
@@ -254,10 +254,10 @@ def test_consume(self):
         sp.consume()
         self.assertEqual(len(sp), 0)
 
-        sp = util.BufferedByteStream('abcdef')
+        sp = util.BufferedByteStream(b'abcdef')
         sp.seek(6)
         sp.consume()
-        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), '')
+        self.assertEqual(sp.getvalue(), b'')
 
 
 class DataTypeMixInTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
@@ -286,7 +286,7 @@ def _read_endian(self, data, func, args, expected):
             self.assertEqual(result, expected)
 
     def test_read_uchar(self):
-        x = util.BufferedByteStream('\x00\xff')
+        x = util.BufferedByteStream(b'\x00\xff')
 
         self.assertEqual(x.read_uchar(), 0)
         self.assertEqual(x.read_uchar(), 255)
@@ -295,16 +295,16 @@ def test_write_uchar(self):
         x = util.BufferedByteStream()
 
         x.write_uchar(0)
-        self.assertEqual(x.getvalue(), '\x00')
+        self.assertEqual(x.getvalue(), b'\x00')
         x.write_uchar(255)
-        self.assertEqual(x.getvalue(), '\x00\xff')
+        self.assertEqual(x.getvalue(), b'\x00\xff')
 
         self.assertRaises(OverflowError, x.write_uchar, 256)
         self.assertRaises(OverflowError, x.write_uchar, -1)
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.write_uchar, 'f')
 
     def test_read_char(self):
-        x = util.BufferedByteStream('\x00\x7f\xff\x80')
+        x = util.BufferedByteStream(b'\x00\x7f\xff\x80')
 
         self.assertEqual(x.read_char(), 0)
         self.assertEqual(x.read_char(), 127)
@@ -318,7 +318,7 @@ def test_write_char(self):
         x.write_char(-128)
         x.write_char(127)
 
-        self.assertEqual(x.getvalue(), '\x00\x80\x7f')
+        self.assertEqual(x.getvalue(), b'\x00\x80\x7f')
 
         self.assertRaises(OverflowError, x.write_char, 128)
         self.assertRaises(OverflowError, x.write_char, -129)
@@ -327,13 +327,13 @@ def test_write_char(self):
     def test_write_ushort(self):
         x = util.BufferedByteStream()
 
-        self._write_endian(x, x.write_ushort, (0,), ('\x00\x00', '\x00\x00'))
-        self._write_endian(x, x.write_ushort, (12345,), ('09', '90'))
+        self._write_endian(x, x.write_ushort, (0,), (b'\x00\x00', b'\x00\x00'))
+        self._write_endian(x, x.write_ushort, (12345,), (b'09', b'90'))
         self._write_endian(
             x,
             x.write_ushort,
             (65535,),
-            ('\xff\xff', '\xff\xff')
+            (b'\xff\xff', b'\xff\xff')
         )
 
         self.assertRaises(OverflowError, x.write_ushort, 65536)
@@ -341,9 +341,9 @@ def test_write_ushort(self):
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.write_ushort, 'aa')
 
     def test_read_ushort(self):
-        self._read_endian(['\x00\x00', '\x00\x00'], 'read_ushort', (), 0)
-        self._read_endian(['09', '90'], 'read_ushort', (), 12345)
-        self._read_endian(['\xff\xff', '\xff\xff'], 'read_ushort', (), 65535)
+        self._read_endian([b'\x00\x00', b'\x00\x00'], 'read_ushort', (), 0)
+        self._read_endian([b'09', b'90'], 'read_ushort', (), 12345)
+        self._read_endian([b'\xff\xff', b'\xff\xff'], 'read_ushort', (), 65535)
 
     def test_write_short(self):
         x = util.BufferedByteStream()
@@ -352,21 +352,21 @@ def test_write_short(self):
             x,
             x.write_short,
             (-5673,),
-            ('\xe9\xd7', '\xd7\xe9')
+            (b'\xe9\xd7', b'\xd7\xe9')
         )
         self._write_endian(
             x, x.write_short,
             (32767,),
-            ('\x7f\xff', '\xff\x7f')
+            (b'\x7f\xff', b'\xff\x7f')
         )
 
         self.assertRaises(OverflowError, x.write_ushort, 65537)
         self.assertRaises(OverflowError, x.write_ushort, -1)
-        self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.write_short, '\x00\x00')
+        self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.write_short, b'\x00\x00')
 
     def test_read_short(self):
-        self._read_endian(['\xe9\xd7', '\xd7\xe9'], 'read_short', (), -5673)
-        self._read_endian(['\x7f\xff', '\xff\x7f'], 'read_short', (), 32767)
+        self._read_endian([b'\xe9\xd7', b'\xd7\xe9'], 'read_short', (), -5673)
+        self._read_endian([b'\x7f\xff', b'\xff\x7f'], 'read_short', (), 32767)
 
     def test_write_ulong(self):
         x = util.BufferedByteStream()
@@ -375,43 +375,43 @@ def test_write_ulong(self):
             x,
             x.write_ulong,
             (0,),
-            ('\x00\x00\x00\x00', '\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+            (b'\x00\x00\x00\x00', b'\x00\x00\x00\x00')
         )
         self._write_endian(
             x,
             x.write_ulong,
             (16810049,),
-            ('\x01\x00\x80A', 'A\x80\x00\x01')
+            (b'\x01\x00\x80A', b'A\x80\x00\x01')
         )
         self._write_endian(
             x,
             x.write_ulong,
-            (4294967295L,),
-            ('\xff\xff\xff\xff', '\xff\xff\xff\xff')
+            (4294967295,),
+            (b'\xff\xff\xff\xff', b'\xff\xff\xff\xff')
         )
 
-        self.assertRaises(OverflowError, x.write_ulong, 4294967296L)
+        self.assertRaises(OverflowError, x.write_ulong, 4294967296)
         self.assertRaises(OverflowError, x.write_ulong, -1)
-        self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.write_ulong, '\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.write_ulong, b'\x00\x00\x00\x00')
 
     def test_read_ulong(self):
         self._read_endian(
-            ['\x00\x00\x00\x00', '\x00\x00\x00\x00'],
+            [b'\x00\x00\x00\x00', b'\x00\x00\x00\x00'],
             'read_ulong',
             (),
             0
         )
         self._read_endian(
-            ['\x01\x00\x80A', 'A\x80\x00\x01'],
+            [b'\x01\x00\x80A', b'A\x80\x00\x01'],
             'read_ulong',
             (),
             16810049
         )
         self._read_endian(
-            ['\xff\xff\xff\xff', '\xff\xff\xff\xff'],
+            [b'\xff\xff\xff\xff', b'\xff\xff\xff\xff'],
             'read_ulong',
             (),
-            4294967295L
+            4294967295
         )
 
     def test_write_long(self):
@@ -421,55 +421,55 @@ def test_write_long(self):
             x,
             x.write_long,
             (0,),
-            ('\x00\x00\x00\x00', '\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+            (b'\x00\x00\x00\x00', b'\x00\x00\x00\x00')
         )
         self._write_endian(
             x,
             x.write_long,
             (16810049,),
-            ('\x01\x00\x80A', 'A\x80\x00\x01')
+            (b'\x01\x00\x80A', b'A\x80\x00\x01')
         )
         self._write_endian(
             x,
             x.write_long,
-            (2147483647L,),
-            ('\x7f\xff\xff\xff', '\xff\xff\xff\x7f')
+            (2147483647,),
+            (b'\x7f\xff\xff\xff', b'\xff\xff\xff\x7f')
         )
         self._write_endian(
             x,
             x.write_long,
             (-2147483648,),
-            ('\x80\x00\x00\x00', '\x00\x00\x00\x80')
+            (b'\x80\x00\x00\x00', b'\x00\x00\x00\x80')
         )
 
         self.assertRaises(OverflowError, x.write_long, 2147483648)
         self.assertRaises(OverflowError, x.write_long, -2147483649)
-        self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.write_long, '\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.write_long, b'\x00\x00\x00\x00')
 
     def test_read_long(self):
         self._read_endian(
-            ['\xff\xff\xcf\xc7', '\xc7\xcf\xff\xff'],
+            [b'\xff\xff\xcf\xc7', b'\xc7\xcf\xff\xff'],
             'read_long',
             (),
             -12345
         )
         self._read_endian(
-            ['\x00\x00\x00\x00', '\x00\x00\x00\x00'],
+            [b'\x00\x00\x00\x00', b'\x00\x00\x00\x00'],
             'read_long',
             (),
             0
         )
         self._read_endian(
-            ['\x01\x00\x80A', 'A\x80\x00\x01'],
+            [b'\x01\x00\x80A', b'A\x80\x00\x01'],
             'read_long',
             (),
             16810049
         )
         self._read_endian(
-            ['\x7f\xff\xff\xff', '\xff\xff\xff\x7f'],
+            [b'\x7f\xff\xff\xff', b'\xff\xff\xff\x7f'],
             'read_long',
             (),
-            2147483647L
+            2147483647
         )
 
     def test_write_u24bit(self):
@@ -479,93 +479,93 @@ def test_write_u24bit(self):
             x,
             x.write_24bit_uint,
             (0,),
-            ('\x00\x00\x00', '\x00\x00\x00')
+            (b'\x00\x00\x00', b'\x00\x00\x00')
         )
         self._write_endian(
             x,
             x.write_24bit_uint,
             (4292609,),
-            ('A\x80\x01', '\x01\x80A')
+            (b'A\x80\x01', b'\x01\x80A')
         )
         self._write_endian(
             x,
             x.write_24bit_uint,
             (16777215,),
-            ('\xff\xff\xff', '\xff\xff\xff')
+            (b'\xff\xff\xff', b'\xff\xff\xff')
         )
 
         self.assertRaises(OverflowError, x.write_24bit_uint, 16777216)
         self.assertRaises(OverflowError, x.write_24bit_uint, -1)
-        self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.write_24bit_uint, '\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.write_24bit_uint, b'\x00\x00\x00')
 
     def test_read_u24bit(self):
         self._read_endian(
-            ['\x00\x00\x00', '\x00\x00\x00'], 'read_24bit_uint', (), 0
+            [b'\x00\x00\x00', b'\x00\x00\x00'], 'read_24bit_uint', (), 0
         )
         self._read_endian(
-            ['\x00\x00\x80', '\x80\x00\x00'], 'read_24bit_uint', (), 128
+            [b'\x00\x00\x80', b'\x80\x00\x00'], 'read_24bit_uint', (), 128
         )
         self._read_endian(
-            ['\x80\x00\x00', '\x00\x00\x80'], 'read_24bit_uint', (), 8388608
+            [b'\x80\x00\x00', b'\x00\x00\x80'], 'read_24bit_uint', (), 8388608
         )
         self._read_endian(
-            ['\xff\xff\x7f', '\x7f\xff\xff'], 'read_24bit_uint', (), 16777087
+            [b'\xff\xff\x7f', b'\x7f\xff\xff'], 'read_24bit_uint', (), 16777087
         )
         self._read_endian(
-            ['\x7f\xff\xff', '\xff\xff\x7f'], 'read_24bit_uint', (), 8388607
+            [b'\x7f\xff\xff', b'\xff\xff\x7f'], 'read_24bit_uint', (), 8388607
         )
 
     def test_write_24bit(self):
         x = util.BufferedByteStream()
 
         self._write_endian(
-            x, x.write_24bit_int, (0,), ('\x00\x00\x00', '\x00\x00\x00')
+            x, x.write_24bit_int, (0,), (b'\x00\x00\x00', b'\x00\x00\x00')
         )
         self._write_endian(
-            x, x.write_24bit_int, (128,), ('\x00\x00\x80', '\x80\x00\x00')
+            x, x.write_24bit_int, (128,), (b'\x00\x00\x80', b'\x80\x00\x00')
         )
         self._write_endian(
-            x, x.write_24bit_int, (8388607,), ('\x7f\xff\xff', '\xff\xff\x7f')
+            x, x.write_24bit_int, (8388607,), (b'\x7f\xff\xff', b'\xff\xff\x7f')
         )
         self._write_endian(
-            x, x.write_24bit_int, (-1,), ('\xff\xff\xff', '\xff\xff\xff')
+            x, x.write_24bit_int, (-1,), (b'\xff\xff\xff', b'\xff\xff\xff')
         )
         self._write_endian(
-            x, x.write_24bit_int, (-8388608,), ('\x80\x00\x00', '\x00\x00\x80')
+            x, x.write_24bit_int, (-8388608,), (b'\x80\x00\x00', b'\x00\x00\x80')
         )
 
         self.assertRaises(OverflowError, x.write_24bit_int, 8388608)
         self.assertRaises(OverflowError, x.write_24bit_int, -8388609)
-        self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.write_24bit_int, '\x00\x00\x00')
+        self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.write_24bit_int, b'\x00\x00\x00')
 
     def test_read_24bit(self):
         self._read_endian(
-            ['\x00\x00\x00', '\x00\x00\x00'], 'read_24bit_int', (), 0
+            [b'\x00\x00\x00', b'\x00\x00\x00'], 'read_24bit_int', (), 0
         )
         self._read_endian(
-            ['\x00\x00\x80', '\x80\x00\x00'], 'read_24bit_int', (), 128
+            [b'\x00\x00\x80', b'\x80\x00\x00'], 'read_24bit_int', (), 128
         )
         self._read_endian(
-            ['\x80\x00\x00', '\x00\x00\x80'], 'read_24bit_int', (), -8388608
+            [b'\x80\x00\x00', b'\x00\x00\x80'], 'read_24bit_int', (), -8388608
         )
         self._read_endian(
-            ['\xff\xff\x7f', '\x7f\xff\xff'], 'read_24bit_int', (), -129
+            [b'\xff\xff\x7f', b'\x7f\xff\xff'], 'read_24bit_int', (), -129
         )
         self._read_endian(
-            ['\x7f\xff\xff', '\xff\xff\x7f'], 'read_24bit_int', (), 8388607
+            [b'\x7f\xff\xff', b'\xff\xff\x7f'], 'read_24bit_int', (), 8388607
         )
 
     def test_write_float(self):
         x = util.BufferedByteStream()
 
         self._write_endian(
-            x, x.write_float, (0.2,), ('>L\xcc\xcd', '\xcd\xccL>')
+            x, x.write_float, (0.2,), (b'>L\xcc\xcd', b'\xcd\xccL>')
         )
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.write_float, 'foo')
 
     def test_read_float(self):
         self._read_endian(
-            ['?\x00\x00\x00', '\x00\x00\x00?'], 'read_float', (), 0.5
+            [b'?\x00\x00\x00', b'\x00\x00\x00?'], 'read_float', (), 0.5
         )
 
     def test_write_double(self):
@@ -575,13 +575,13 @@ def test_write_double(self):
             x,
             x.write_double,
             (0.2,),
-            ('?\xc9\x99\x99\x99\x99\x99\x9a', '\x9a\x99\x99\x99\x99\x99\xc9?')
+            (b'?\xc9\x99\x99\x99\x99\x99\x9a', b'\x9a\x99\x99\x99\x99\x99\xc9?')
         )
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.write_double, 'foo')
 
     def test_read_double(self):
         self._read_endian(
-            ['?\xc9\x99\x99\x99\x99\x99\x9a', '\x9a\x99\x99\x99\x99\x99\xc9?'],
+            [b'?\xc9\x99\x99\x99\x99\x99\x9a', b'\x9a\x99\x99\x99\x99\x99\xc9?'],
             'read_double',
             (),
             0.2
@@ -594,7 +594,7 @@ def test_write_utf8_string(self):
             x,
             x.write_utf8_string,
             (u'ᚠᛇᚻ',),
-            ['\xe1\x9a\xa0\xe1\x9b\x87\xe1\x9a\xbb'] * 2
+            [b'\xe1\x9a\xa0\xe1\x9b\x87\xe1\x9a\xbb'] * 2
         )
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.write_utf8_string, 1)
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, x.write_utf8_string, 1.0)
@@ -603,32 +603,32 @@ def test_write_utf8_string(self):
 
     def test_read_utf8_string(self):
         self._read_endian(
-            ['\xe1\x9a\xa0\xe1\x9b\x87\xe1\x9a\xbb'] * 2,
+            [b'\xe1\x9a\xa0\xe1\x9b\x87\xe1\x9a\xbb'] * 2,
             'read_utf8_string',
             (9,),
             u'ᚠᛇᚻ'
         )
 
     def test_nan(self):
-        x = util.BufferedByteStream('\xff\xf8\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        x = util.BufferedByteStream(b'\xff\xf8\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
         self.assertTrue(isNaN(x.read_double()))
 
-        x = util.BufferedByteStream('\xff\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        x = util.BufferedByteStream(b'\xff\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
         self.assertTrue(isNegInf(x.read_double()))
 
-        x = util.BufferedByteStream('\x7f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
+        x = util.BufferedByteStream(b'\x7f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')
         self.assertTrue(isPosInf(x.read_double()))
 
         # now test little endian
-        x = util.BufferedByteStream('\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\xf8\xff')
+        x = util.BufferedByteStream(b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\xf8\xff')
         x.endian = '<'
         self.assertTrue(isNaN(x.read_double()))
 
-        x = util.BufferedByteStream('\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\xf0\xff')
+        x = util.BufferedByteStream(b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\xf0\xff')
         x.endian = '<'
         self.assertTrue(isNegInf(x.read_double()))
 
-        x = util.BufferedByteStream('\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\xf0\x7f')
+        x = util.BufferedByteStream(b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\xf0\x7f')
         x.endian = '<'
         self.assertTrue(isPosInf(x.read_double()))
 
@@ -636,18 +636,18 @@ def test_write_infinites(self):
         x = util.BufferedByteStream()
 
         self._write_endian(x, x.write_double, (NaN,), (
-            '\xff\xf8\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00',
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\xf8\xff'
+            b'\xff\xf8\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00',
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\xf8\xff'
         ))
 
         self._write_endian(x, x.write_double, (PosInf,), (
-            '\x7f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00',
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\xf0\x7f'
+            b'\x7f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00',
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\xf0\x7f'
         ))
 
         self._write_endian(x, x.write_double, (NegInf,), (
-            '\xff\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00',
-            '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\xf0\xff'
+            b'\xff\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00',
+            b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\xf0\xff'
         ))
 
 
@@ -659,12 +659,12 @@ class BufferedByteStreamTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
     def test_create(self):
         x = util.BufferedByteStream()
 
-        self.assertEqual(x.getvalue(), '')
+        self.assertEqual(x.getvalue(), b'')
         self.assertEqual(x.tell(), 0)
 
-        x = util.BufferedByteStream('abc')
+        x = util.BufferedByteStream(b'abc')
 
-        self.assertEqual(x.getvalue(), 'abc')
+        self.assertEqual(x.getvalue(), b'abc')
         self.assertEqual(x.tell(), 0)
 
     def test_read(self):
@@ -676,10 +676,10 @@ def test_read(self):
 
         self.assertRaises(IOError, x.read, 10)
 
-        x.write('hello')
+        x.write(b'hello')
         x.seek(0)
         self.assertRaises(IOError, x.read, 10)
-        self.assertEqual(x.read(), 'hello')
+        self.assertEqual(x.read(), b'hello')
 
     def test_read_negative(self):
         """
@@ -687,34 +687,34 @@ def test_read_negative(self):
         """
         x = util.BufferedByteStream()
 
-        x.write('*' * 6000)
+        x.write(b'*' * 6000)
         x.seek(100)
         self.assertRaises(IOError, x.read, -345)
 
     def test_peek(self):
-        x = util.BufferedByteStream('abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
+        x = util.BufferedByteStream(b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
 
         self.assertEqual(x.tell(), 0)
 
-        self.assertEqual(x.peek(), 'a')
-        self.assertEqual(x.peek(5), 'abcde')
-        self.assertEqual(x.peek(-1), 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
+        self.assertEqual(x.peek(), b'a')
+        self.assertEqual(x.peek(5), b'abcde')
+        self.assertEqual(x.peek(-1), b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz')
 
         x.seek(10)
-        self.assertEqual(x.peek(50), 'klmnopqrstuvwxyz')
+        self.assertEqual(x.peek(50), b'klmnopqrstuvwxyz')
 
     def test_eof(self):
         x = util.BufferedByteStream()
 
         self.assertTrue(x.at_eof())
-        x.write('hello')
+        x.write(b'hello')
         x.seek(0)
         self.assertFalse(x.at_eof())
         x.seek(0, 2)
         self.assertTrue(x.at_eof())
 
     def test_remaining(self):
-        x = util.BufferedByteStream('spameggs')
+        x = util.BufferedByteStream(b'spameggs')
 
         self.assertEqual(x.tell(), 0)
         self.assertEqual(x.remaining(), 8)
@@ -724,18 +724,18 @@ def test_remaining(self):
         self.assertEqual(x.remaining(), 6)
 
     def test_add(self):
-        a = util.BufferedByteStream('a')
-        b = util.BufferedByteStream('b')
+        a = util.BufferedByteStream(b'a')
+        b = util.BufferedByteStream(b'b')
 
         c = a + b
 
         self.assertTrue(isinstance(c, util.BufferedByteStream))
-        self.assertEqual(c.getvalue(), 'ab')
+        self.assertEqual(c.getvalue(), b'ab')
         self.assertEqual(c.tell(), 0)
 
     def test_add_pos(self):
-        a = util.BufferedByteStream('abc')
-        b = util.BufferedByteStream('def')
+        a = util.BufferedByteStream(b'abc')
+        b = util.BufferedByteStream(b'def')
 
         a.seek(1)
         b.seek(0, 2)
@@ -752,7 +752,7 @@ def test_append_types(self):
 
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, a.append, 234234)
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, a.append, 234.0)
-        self.assertRaises(TypeError, a.append, 234234L)
+        self.assertRaises(TypeError, a.append, 234234)
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, a.append, [])
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, a.append, {})
         self.assertRaises(TypeError, a.append, lambda _: None)
@@ -766,57 +766,57 @@ def test_append_string(self):
         # test empty
         a = util.BufferedByteStream()
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), '')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 0)
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 0)
 
-        a.append('foo')
+        a.append(b'foo')
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), 'foo')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'foo')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 0)  # <-- pointer hasn't moved
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 3)
 
         # test pointer beginning, some data
 
-        a = util.BufferedByteStream('bar')
+        a = util.BufferedByteStream(b'bar')
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), 'bar')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'bar')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 0)
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 3)
 
-        a.append('gak')
+        a.append(b'gak')
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), 'bargak')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'bargak')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 0)  # <-- pointer hasn't moved
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 6)
 
         # test pointer middle, some data
 
-        a = util.BufferedByteStream('bar')
+        a = util.BufferedByteStream(b'bar')
         a.seek(2)
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), 'bar')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'bar')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 2)
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 3)
 
-        a.append('gak')
+        a.append(b'gak')
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), 'bargak')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'bargak')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 2)  # <-- pointer hasn't moved
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 6)
 
         # test pointer end, some data
 
-        a = util.BufferedByteStream('bar')
+        a = util.BufferedByteStream(b'bar')
         a.seek(0, 2)
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), 'bar')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'bar')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 3)
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 3)
 
-        a.append('gak')
+        a.append(b'gak')
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), 'bargak')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'bargak')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 3)  # <-- pointer hasn't moved
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 6)
 
@@ -829,13 +829,13 @@ def __str__(self):
 
         a = util.BufferedByteStream()
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), '')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 0)
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 0)
 
         a.append(Foo())
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), 'foo')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'foo')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 0)
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 3)
 
@@ -846,57 +846,57 @@ def test_append_unicode(self):
         # test empty
         a = util.BufferedByteStream()
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), '')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 0)
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 0)
 
         a.append(u'foo')
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), 'foo')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'foo')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 0)  # <-- pointer hasn't moved
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 3)
 
         # test pointer beginning, some data
 
-        a = util.BufferedByteStream('bar')
+        a = util.BufferedByteStream(b'bar')
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), 'bar')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'bar')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 0)
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 3)
 
         a.append(u'gak')
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), 'bargak')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'bargak')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 0)  # <-- pointer hasn't moved
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 6)
 
         # test pointer middle, some data
 
-        a = util.BufferedByteStream('bar')
+        a = util.BufferedByteStream(b'bar')
         a.seek(2)
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), 'bar')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'bar')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 2)
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 3)
 
         a.append(u'gak')
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), 'bargak')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'bargak')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 2)  # <-- pointer hasn't moved
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 6)
 
         # test pointer end, some data
 
-        a = util.BufferedByteStream('bar')
+        a = util.BufferedByteStream(b'bar')
         a.seek(0, 2)
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), 'bar')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'bar')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 3)
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 3)
 
         a.append(u'gak')
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), 'bargak')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'bargak')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 3)  # <-- pointer hasn't moved
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 6)
 
@@ -909,13 +909,13 @@ def __str__(self):
 
         a = util.BufferedByteStream()
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), '')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 0)
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 0)
 
         a.append(Foo())
 
-        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), 'foo')
+        self.assertEqual(a.getvalue(), b'foo')
         self.assertEqual(a.tell(), 0)
         self.assertEqual(len(a), 3)
 
@@ -1040,7 +1040,7 @@ class A:
         class B(object):
             pass
 
-        for t in ['', u'', 1, 1.0, 1L, [], {}, object, object(), A(), B()]:
+        for t in ['', u'', 1, 1.0, 1, [], {}, object, object(), A(), B()]:
             self.assertRaises(TypeError, util.get_class_meta, t)
 
     def test_no_meta(self):
@@ -1059,7 +1059,6 @@ class B(object):
             'alias': None,
             'amf3': None,
             'exclude_attrs': None,
-            'proxy_attrs': None,
             'external': None
         }
 
@@ -1083,7 +1082,6 @@ class __amf__:
             'dynamic': None,
             'alias': 'foo.bar.Spam',
             'amf3': None,
-            'proxy_attrs': None,
             'exclude_attrs': None,
             'external': None
         }
@@ -1133,7 +1131,6 @@ class __amf__:
             'alias': None,
             'amf3': None,
             'static_attrs': None,
-            'proxy_attrs': None,
             'external': None
         }
 
@@ -1159,7 +1156,6 @@ class __amf__:
             'amf3': None,
             'static_attrs': None,
             'external': None,
-            'proxy_attrs': None,
         }
 
         self.assertEqual(util.get_class_meta(A), meta)
@@ -1179,7 +1175,6 @@ class __amf__:
             'proxy_attrs': None,
             'synonym_attrs': None,
             'readonly_attrs': None,
-            'proxy_attrs': None,
             'dynamic': None,
             'alias': None,
             'amf3': True,
@@ -1204,7 +1199,6 @@ class __amf__:
             'proxy_attrs': None,
             'synonym_attrs': None,
             'readonly_attrs': None,
-            'proxy_attrs': None,
             'dynamic': False,
             'alias': None,
             'amf3': None,
@@ -1229,7 +1223,6 @@ class __amf__:
             'proxy_attrs': None,
             'synonym_attrs': None,
             'readonly_attrs': None,
-            'proxy_attrs': None,
             'dynamic': None,
             'alias': None,
             'amf3': None,
@@ -1268,7 +1261,6 @@ class B(object):
             'amf3': True,
             'exclude_attrs': ['foo'],
             'synonym_attrs': None,
-            'proxy_attrs': None,
             'external': True
         }
 
diff --git a/pyamf/tests/util.py b/pyamf/tests/util.py
index aedbad18..c61ca8c9 100644
--- a/pyamf/tests/util.py
+++ b/pyamf/tests/util.py
@@ -9,6 +9,7 @@
 
 import unittest
 import copy
+from six import integer_types, string_types
 
 import pyamf
 from pyamf import python
@@ -86,7 +87,7 @@ def tearDown(self):
         pass
 
     def decode(self, bytes, raw=False):
-        if not isinstance(bytes, basestring):
+        if not isinstance(bytes, string_types):
             bytes = _join(bytes)
 
         self.buf.seek(0, 0)
@@ -137,7 +138,7 @@ def assertBuffer(self, first, second, msg=None):
     def assertEncodes(self, obj, buffer, encoding=pyamf.AMF3):
         bytes = pyamf.encode(obj, encoding=encoding).getvalue()
 
-        if isinstance(buffer, basestring):
+        if isinstance(buffer, string_types):
             self.assertEqual(bytes, buffer)
 
             return
@@ -145,7 +146,7 @@ def assertEncodes(self, obj, buffer, encoding=pyamf.AMF3):
         self.assertBuffer(bytes, buffer)
 
     def assertDecodes(self, bytes, cb, encoding=pyamf.AMF3, raw=False):
-        if not isinstance(bytes, basestring):
+        if not isinstance(bytes, string_types):
             bytes = _join(bytes)
 
         ret = list(pyamf.decode(bytes, encoding=encoding))
@@ -244,14 +245,14 @@ def expectedFailureIfAppengine(func):
 
 
 def _join(parts):
-    ret = ''
+    ret = bytearray()
 
     for p in parts:
-        if not isinstance(p, basestring):
-            ret += _join(p)
-
-            continue
-
-        ret += p
+        if isinstance(p, integer_types):
+            ret.append(p)
+        elif not isinstance(p, string_types):
+            ret.extend(_join(p))
+        else:
+            ret.extend(p)
 
-    return ret
+    return bytes(ret)
diff --git a/pyamf/util/__init__.py b/pyamf/util/__init__.py
index 3cb2efb0..6f1605d9 100644
--- a/pyamf/util/__init__.py
+++ b/pyamf/util/__init__.py
@@ -10,6 +10,8 @@
 import calendar
 import datetime
 import inspect
+import math
+from six import iteritems
 
 import pyamf
 from pyamf import python
@@ -35,7 +37,8 @@
 
 #: On some Python versions retrieving a negative timestamp, like
 #: C{datetime.datetime.utcfromtimestamp(-31536000.0)} is broken.
-negative_timestamp_broken = False
+#: On python 3 timestamps are always rounded down.
+fromtimestamp_broken = False
 
 
 def get_timestamp(d):
@@ -65,9 +68,8 @@ def get_datetime(secs):
     @return: UTC timestamp.
     @rtype: C{datetime.datetime}
     """
-    if negative_timestamp_broken and secs < 0:
+    if fromtimestamp_broken:
         return datetime.datetime(1970, 1, 1) + datetime.timedelta(seconds=secs)
-
     return datetime.datetime.utcfromtimestamp(secs)
 
 
@@ -99,14 +101,14 @@ def set_attrs(obj, attrs):
     if hasattr(obj, '__setitem__'):
         o = type(obj).__setitem__
 
-    [o(obj, k, v) for k, v in attrs.iteritems()]
+    [o(obj, k, v) for k, v in iteritems(attrs)]
 
 
 def get_class_alias(klass):
     """
     Tries to find a suitable L{pyamf.ClassAlias} subclass for C{klass}.
     """
-    for k, v in pyamf.ALIAS_TYPES.iteritems():
+    for k, v in iteritems(pyamf.ALIAS_TYPES):
         for kl in v:
             try:
                 if issubclass(klass, kl):
@@ -208,4 +210,6 @@ def get_module(mod_name):
 try:
     datetime.datetime.utcfromtimestamp(-31536000.0)
 except ValueError:
-    negative_timestamp_broken = True
+    fromtimestamp_broken = True
+if datetime.datetime.utcfromtimestamp(100000000.0005).microsecond != 5000:
+    fromtimestamp_broken = True
diff --git a/pyamf/util/pure.py b/pyamf/util/pure.py
index 07161a52..bde9bbf5 100644
--- a/pyamf/util/pure.py
+++ b/pyamf/util/pure.py
@@ -12,11 +12,7 @@
 """
 
 import struct
-
-try:
-    from cStringIO import StringIO
-except ImportError:
-    from StringIO import StringIO
+from six import BytesIO, binary_type, text_type
 
 from pyamf import python
 
@@ -24,9 +20,9 @@
 SYSTEM_ENDIAN = None
 
 
-class StringIOProxy(object):
+class BytesIOProxy(object):
     """
-    I am a C{StringIO} type object containing byte data from the AMF stream.
+    I am a C{BytesIO} type object containing byte data from the AMF stream.
 
     @see: U{ByteArray on OSFlash
         <http://osflash.org/documentation/amf3#x0c_-_bytearray>}
@@ -36,11 +32,11 @@ class StringIOProxy(object):
 
     def __init__(self, buf=None):
         """
-        @raise TypeError: Unable to coerce C{buf} to C{StringIO}.
+        @raise TypeError: Unable to coerce C{buf} to C{BytesIO}.
         """
-        self._buffer = StringIO()
+        self._buffer = BytesIO()
 
-        if isinstance(buf, python.str_types):
+        if isinstance(buf, binary_type):
             self._buffer.write(buf)
         elif hasattr(buf, 'getvalue'):
             self._buffer.write(buf.getvalue())
@@ -53,7 +49,7 @@ def __init__(self, buf=None):
             self._buffer.write(buf.read())
             buf.seek(old_pos)
         elif buf is not None:
-            raise TypeError("Unable to coerce buf->StringIO got %r" % (buf,))
+            raise TypeError("Unable to coerce buf->BytesIO got %r" % (buf,))
 
         self._get_len()
         self._len_changed = False
@@ -102,7 +98,7 @@ def truncate(self, size=0):
         @type size: C{int}
         """
         if size == 0:
-            self._buffer = StringIO()
+            self._buffer = BytesIO()
             self._len_changed = True
 
             return
@@ -110,7 +106,7 @@ def truncate(self, size=0):
         cur_pos = self.tell()
         self.seek(0)
         buf = self.read(size)
-        self._buffer = StringIO()
+        self._buffer = BytesIO()
 
         self._buffer.write(buf)
         self.seek(cur_pos)
@@ -508,15 +504,15 @@ def write_utf8_string(self, u):
 
         bytes = u
 
-        if isinstance(bytes, unicode):
+        if isinstance(bytes, text_type):
             bytes = u.encode("utf8")
 
         self.write(struct.pack("%s%ds" % (self.endian, len(bytes)), bytes))
 
 
-class BufferedByteStream(StringIOProxy, DataTypeMixIn):
+class BufferedByteStream(BytesIOProxy, DataTypeMixIn):
     """
-    An extension of C{StringIO}.
+    An extension of C{BytesIO}.
 
     Features:
      - Raises L{IOError} if reading past end.
@@ -526,10 +522,10 @@ class BufferedByteStream(StringIOProxy, DataTypeMixIn):
     def __init__(self, buf=None, min_buf_size=None):
         """
         @param buf: Initial byte stream.
-        @type buf: C{str} or C{StringIO} instance
+        @type buf: C{str} or C{BytesIO} instance
         @param min_buf_size: Ignored in the pure Python version.
         """
-        StringIOProxy.__init__(self, buf=buf)
+        BytesIOProxy.__init__(self, buf=buf)
 
     def read(self, length=-1):
         """
@@ -547,7 +543,7 @@ def read(self, length=-1):
                 'remain' % (length, len(self) - self.tell())
             )
 
-        return StringIOProxy.read(self, length)
+        return BytesIOProxy.read(self, length)
 
     def peek(self, size=1):
         """
@@ -566,7 +562,7 @@ def peek(self, size=1):
         if size < -1:
             raise ValueError("Cannot peek backwards")
 
-        bytes = ''
+        bytes = b''
         pos = self.tell()
 
         while not self.at_eof() and len(bytes) != size:
@@ -608,9 +604,12 @@ def append(self, data):
         self.seek(0, 2)
 
         if hasattr(data, 'getvalue'):
-            self.write_utf8_string(data.getvalue())
-        else:
-            self.write_utf8_string(data)
+            data = data.getvalue()
+        if isinstance(data, text_type):
+            data = data.encode('utf-8')
+        if not isinstance(data, binary_type):
+            raise TypeError
+        self.write(data)
 
         self.seek(t)
 
@@ -642,7 +641,7 @@ def is_float_broken():
     @return: Boolean indicating whether floats are broken on this platform.
     """
     return str(python.NaN) != str(
-        struct.unpack("!d", '\xff\xf8\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')[0])
+        struct.unpack("!d", b'\xff\xf8\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00')[0])
 
 
 # init the module from here ..
@@ -656,22 +655,22 @@ def read_double_workaround(self):
         bytes = self.read(8)
 
         if self._is_big_endian():
-            if bytes == '\xff\xf8\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00':
+            if bytes == b'\xff\xf8\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00':
                 return python.NaN
 
-            if bytes == '\xff\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00':
+            if bytes == b'\xff\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00':
                 return python.NegInf
 
-            if bytes == '\x7f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00':
+            if bytes == b'\x7f\xf0\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00':
                 return python.PosInf
         else:
-            if bytes == '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\xf8\xff':
+            if bytes == b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\xf8\xff':
                 return python.NaN
 
-            if bytes == '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\xf0\xff':
+            if bytes == b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\xf0\xff':
                 return python.NegInf
 
-            if bytes == '\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\xf0\x7f':
+            if bytes == b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\xf0\x7f':
                 return python.PosInf
 
         return struct.unpack("%sd" % self.endian, bytes)[0]
diff --git a/pyamf/xml.py b/pyamf/xml.py
index f59a48ac..3f7f46cf 100644
--- a/pyamf/xml.py
+++ b/pyamf/xml.py
@@ -7,6 +7,8 @@
 @since: 0.6
 """
 
+from six import binary_type
+
 #: list of supported third party packages that support the C{etree}
 #: interface. At least enough for our needs anyway.
 ETREE_MODULES = [